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Girard O, Li SN, Hobbins L, Ryu JH, Peeling P. Gait asymmetries during perceptually-regulated interval running in hypoxia and normoxia. Sports Biomech 2024; 23:918-934. [PMID: 33792523 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1900356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to characterise bilateral asymmetry in running mechanics during perceptually regulated, high-intensity intermittent running in hypoxia and normoxia and examines whether inter-limb differences in running mechanics are modified between and within intervals. Nineteen trained runners completed 4 × 4-min treadmill running bouts (3-min passive recoveries) at a perceived rating exertion of 16 on the 6-20 Borg scale in either hypoxic (FiO2 = 0.15) or normoxic (FiO2 = 0.21) conditions. Ground reaction force recordings at constant velocity (group average: 14.8 ± 1.9 km/h) allowed measurement of running kinetics/kinematics and calculation of spring-mass model characteristics at the beginning and the end of each 4-min interval. Lower limb asymmetry was assessed from the 'symmetry angle' (SA) score. There were no between intervals (P > 0.087), within intervals (P > 0.076) or FiO2 (P > 0.128) differences in SA scores for any of the 16 biomechanical variables. Mean SA scores were lower than 1.5% for spatio-temporal variables, ~1.5-3% for braking and push-off phase durations, peak forces and impulses and ~4-6% for mean loading rate and vertical stiffness. With preserved lower limb asymmetries both between and within intervals and with additional hypoxia, trained runners completing perceptually regulated interval treadmill runs may anticipate a maintained performance without heightened injury risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
- Research and Scientific Support Department, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Siu Nam Li
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Liam Hobbins
- Sport and Exercise Science Research Centre, School of Applied Sciences, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | | | - Peter Peeling
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
- Western Australian Institute of Sport, Mt Claremont, Australia
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Girard O, Levine BD, Chapman RF, Wilber R. "Living High-Training Low" for Olympic Medal Performance: What Have We Learned 25 Years After Implementation? Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:563-572. [PMID: 37116895 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Altitude training is often regarded as an indispensable tool for the success of elite endurance athletes. Historically, altitude training emerged as a key strategy to prepare for the 1968 Olympics, held at 2300 m in Mexico City, and was limited to the "Live High-Train High" method for endurance athletes aiming for performance gains through improved oxygen transport. This "classical" intervention was modified in 1997 by the "Live High-Train Low" (LHTL) model wherein athletes supplemented acclimatization to chronic hypoxia with high-intensity training at low altitude. PURPOSE This review discusses important considerations for successful implementation of LHTL camps in elite athletes based on experiences, both published and unpublished, of the authors. APPROACH The originality of our approach is to discuss 10 key "lessons learned," since the seminal work by Levine and Stray-Gundersen was published in 1997, and focusing on (1) optimal dose, (2) individual responses, (3) iron status, (4) training-load monitoring, (5) wellness and well-being monitoring, (6) timing of the intervention, (7) use of natural versus simulated hypoxia, (8) robustness of adaptative mechanisms versus performance benefits, (9) application for a broad range of athletes, and (10) combination of methods. Successful LHTL strategies implemented by Team USA athletes for podium performance at Olympic Games and/or World Championships are presented. CONCLUSIONS The evolution of the LHTL model represents an essential framework for sport science, in which field-driven questions about performance led to critical scientific investigation and subsequent practical implementation of a unique approach to altitude training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), University of Western Australia, Perth, WA,Australia
| | - Benjamin D Levine
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital Dallas, Dallas, TX,USA
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX,USA
| | - Robert F Chapman
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN,USA
| | - Randall Wilber
- United States Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO,USA
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Rodríguez-Barbero S, González-Mohíno F, Rodrigo-Carranza V, Santos-Garcia DJ, Boullosa D, González-Ravé JM. Acute effects of interval training on running kinematics in runners: A systematic review. Gait Posture 2023; 103:19-26. [PMID: 37075554 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2023.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interval training (IT) is influenced by several variables and its design. However, there is no consensus about the acute effects of this type of training on running kinematics and gait patterns due to the variety of session designs. RESEARCH QUESTION The aim of this systematic review was to determine the acute effects of IT on gait patterns and running kinematics in endurance runners depending on the characteristics of the training sessions. METHODS A systematic search on four databases (Pubmed, WOS, Medline, and Scopus) was conducted on February 22, 2022. After analyzing 655 articles, studies were included if they met the inclusion criteria developed according to the PICO model. Nine studies were finally included. RESULTS Only two of these studies measured kinematics changes during IT bouts while seven measured pre-post changes of these parameters. The quality scores of the included studies in the review averaged 5.44 (good quality) points using the modified PEDro scale. The observed changes in running kinematics during IT sessions were an increase in stride frequency, contact time and vertical displacement of center of mass. SIGNIFICANCE Regarding the type of IT, anaerobic and short aerobic interval sessions (200-1000 m) should include long recovery periods (2-3 min) to avoid the increase of stride frequency, contact time and vertical oscillation of the center of mass as a results of muscle fatigue. For long aerobic interval sessions (>1000 m), a short recovery (1-2 min) between bouts do not induce a high level of muscle fatigue nor modifications in gait patterns. Coaches and athletes must consider the relative intensity and recovery periods of IT, and the type of IT, to prevent excessive fatigue which can negatively affect running kinematics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sport Training Lab. University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain; Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain.
| | | | | | - Daniel Boullosa
- Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, Universidad de León, León, Spain
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Pirscoveanu CI, Oliveira AS. Sensitiveness of Variables Extracted from a Fitness Smartwatch to Detect Changes in Vertical Impact Loading during Outdoors Running. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2928. [PMID: 36991637 PMCID: PMC10053772 DOI: 10.3390/s23062928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Accelerometry is becoming a popular method to access human movement in outdoor conditions. Running smartwatches may acquire chest accelerometry through a chest strap, but little is known about whether the data from these chest straps can provide indirect access to changes in vertical impact properties that define rearfoot or forefoot strike. This study assessed whether the data from a fitness smartwatch and chest strap containing a tri-axial accelerometer (FS) is sensible to detect changes in running style. Twenty-eight participants performed 95 m running bouts at ~3 m/s in two conditions: normal running and running while actively reducing impact sounds (silent running). The FS acquired running cadence, ground contact time (GCT), stride length, trunk vertical oscillation (TVO), and heart rate. Moreover, a tri-axial accelerometer attached to the right shank provided peak vertical tibia acceleration (PKACC). The running parameters extracted from the FS and PKACC variables were compared between normal and silent running. Moreover, the association between PKACC and smartwatch running parameters was accessed using Pearson correlations. There was a 13 ± 19% reduction in PKACC (p < 0.005), and a 5 ± 10% increase in TVO from normal to silent running (p < 0.01). Moreover, there were slight reductions (~2 ± 2%) in cadence and GCT when silently running (p < 0.05). However, there were no significant associations between PKACC and the variables extracted from the FS (r < 0.1, p > 0.05). Therefore, our results suggest that biomechanical variables extracted from FS have limited sensitivity to detect changes in running technique. Moreover, the biomechanical variables from the FS cannot be associated with lower limb vertical loading.
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Millet GP, Chamari K. Look to the stars-Is there anything that public health and rehabilitation can learn from elite sports? Front Sports Act Living 2023; 4:1072154. [PMID: 36755563 PMCID: PMC9900137 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.1072154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Grégoire P. Millet
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland,Correspondence: Grégoire P. Millet
| | - Karim Chamari
- Aspetar, Orthopedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, FIFA Medical Center of Excellence, Doha, Qatar
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Li Tee CC, Chong MC, Sundar V, Chok CL, Md Razali MR, Yeo WK, Girard O. Influence of exercise intensity and hypoxic exposure on physiological, perceptual and biomechanical responses to treadmill running. Eur J Sport Sci 2022:1-10. [PMID: 35912915 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2109066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAcute physiological, perceptual and biomechanical consequences of manipulating both exercise intensity and hypoxic exposure during treadmill running were determined. On separate days, eleven trained individuals ran for 45 s (separated by 135 s of rest) on an instrumented treadmill at seven running speeds (8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 km.h-1) in normoxia (NM, FiO2 = 20.9%), moderate hypoxia (MH, FiO2 = 16.1%), high hypoxia (HH, FiO2 = 14.1%) and severe hypoxia (SH, FiO2 = 13.0%). Running mechanics were collected over 20 consecutive steps (i.e., after running ∼25 s), with concurrent assessment of physiological (heart rate and arterial oxygen saturation) and perceptual (overall perceived discomfort, difficulty breathing and leg discomfort) responses. Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (seven speeds × four conditions) were used. There was a speed × condition interaction for heart rate (p = 0.045, ηp2 = 0.22), with lower values in NM, MH and HH compared to SH at 8 km.h-1 (125 ± 12, 125 ± 11, 128 ± 12 vs 132 ± 10 b.min-1). Overall perceived discomfort (8 and 16 km.h-1; p = 0.019 and p = 0.007, ηp2 =0.21, respectively) and perceived difficulty breathing (all speeds; p = 0.023, ηp2 =0.37) were greater in SH compared to MH, whereas leg discomfort was not influenced by hypoxic exposure. Minimal difference was observed in the twelve kinetics/kinematics variables with hypoxia (p > 0.122; ηp2 = 0.19). Running at slower speeds in combination with severe hypoxia elevates physiological and perceptual responses without a corresponding increase in ground reaction forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Chow Li Tee
- Division of Research and Innovation, National Sports Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Mee Chee Chong
- School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Viswanath Sundar
- Division of Sports Performance, National Sports Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Chuen Leang Chok
- Division of Sports Performance, National Sports Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Rizal Md Razali
- Division of Research and Innovation, National Sports Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Wee Kian Yeo
- Division of Research and Innovation, National Sports Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
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Van Alsenoy K, Ryu JH, Girard O. Acute intense fatigue does not modify the effect of EVA and TPU custom foot orthoses on running mechanics, running economy and perceived comfort. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1179-1187. [PMID: 35201416 PMCID: PMC9012714 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04903-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We determined whether fatigue modifies the effect of custom foot orthoses manufactured from ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA) and expanded thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) materials, both compared to standardized footwear (CON), on running mechanics, running economy, and perceived comfort. Eighteen well-trained, males ran on an instrumented treadmill for 6 min at the speed corresponding to their first ventilatory threshold (13.8 ± 1.1 km/h) in three footwear conditions (CON, EVA, and TPU). Immediately after completion of a repeated-sprints exercise (8 × 5 s treadmill sprints, rest = 25 s), these run tests were replicated. Running mechanics, running economy and perceived comfort were determined. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA [condition (CON, EVA, and TPU) × fatigue (fresh and fatigued)] were conducted. Flight time shortened (P = 0.026), peak braking (P = 0.016) and push-off (P = 0.032) forces decreased and vertical stiffness increased (P = 0.014) from before to after the repeated-sprint exercise, independent of footwear condition. There was a global fatigue-induced deterioration in running economy (- 1.6 ± 0.4%; P < 0.001). There was no significant condition × fatigue [except mean loading rate (P = 0.046)] for the large majority of biomechanical, cardio-respiratory [except minute ventilation (P = 0.020) and breathing frequency (P = 0.019)] and perceived comfort variables. Acute intense fatigue does not modify the effect of custom foot orthoses with different resilience characteristics on running mechanics, running economy and perceived comfort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Van Alsenoy
- Aspetar, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, Doha, Qatar.
- Centre for Health, Activity and Rehabilitation Research (CHEARR), Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, UK.
| | | | - Olivier Girard
- Aspetar, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, Doha, Qatar.
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia.
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Effects of graded hypoxia during exhaustive intermittent cycling on subsequent exercise performance and neuromuscular responses. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:3539-3549. [PMID: 34536112 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04809-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study examined the effect of graded hypoxia during exhaustive intermittent cycling on subsequent exercise performance and neuromuscular fatigue characteristics in normoxia. METHODS Fifteen well-trained cyclists performed an exhaustive intermittent cycling exercise (EICE 1; 15 s at 30% of anaerobic power reserve interspersed with 45 s of passive recovery) at sea level (SL; FiO2 ~ 0.21), moderate (MH; FiO2 ~ 0.16) and severe hypoxia (SH; FiO2 ~ 0.12). This was followed, after 30 min of passive recovery in normoxia, by an identical exercise bout in normoxia (EICE 2). Neuromuscular function of the knee extensors was assessed at baseline, after EICE 1 (post-EICE 1), and EICE 2 (post-EICE 2). RESULTS The number of efforts completed decreased with increasing hypoxic severity during EICE 1 (SL: 39 ± 30, MH: 22 ± 13, SH: 13 ± 6; p ≤ 0.02), whereas there was no difference between conditions during EICE 2 (SL: 16 ± 9, MH: 20 ± 14, SH: 24 ± 17; p ≥ 0.09). Maximal torque (p = 0.007), peripheral (p = 0.02) and cortical voluntary activation (p < 0.001), and twitch torque (p < 0.001) decreased from baseline to post-EICE 1. Overall, there were no significant difference in any neuromuscular parameters from post-EICE 1 to post-EICE 2 (p ≥ 0.08). CONCLUSION Increasing hypoxia severity during exhaustive intermittent cycling hampered exercise capacity, but did not influence performance and associated neuromuscular responses during a subsequent bout of exercise in normoxia performed after 30 min of rest.
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Burin D, Liu Y, Yamaya N, Kawashima R. Virtual training leads to physical, cognitive and neural benefits in healthy adults. Neuroimage 2020; 222:117297. [PMID: 32828927 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical activity, such as high-intensity intermittent aerobic exercise (HIE), can improve executive functions. Although performing strength or aerobic training might be problematic or not feasible for someone. An experimental situation where there is no actual movement, but the body shows physiological reactions, is during the illusion through immersive virtual reality (IVR). We aimed to demonstrate whether a virtual HIE-based intervention (vHIE) performed exclusively by the own virtual body has physical, cognitive, and neural benefits on the real body. 45 healthy young adults (cross-over design) experienced HIE training in IVR (i.e., the virtual body performed eight sets of 30 s of running followed by 30 s of slow walking, while the subject is completely still) in two random-ordered conditions (administered in two sessions one week apart): the virtual body is displayed in first-person perspective (1PP) or third-person perspective (3PP). During the vHIE, we recorded the heart rate and subjective questionnaires to confirm the effectiveness of the illusion; before and after vHIE, we measured cortical hemodynamic changes in the participants' left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (lDLPFC) using the fNIRS device during the Stroop task to test our main hypothesis. Preliminary, we confirmed that the illusion was effective: during the vHIE in 1PP, subjects' heart rate increased coherently with the virtual movements, and they reported subjective feelings of ownership and agency. Primarily, subjects were faster in executing the Stroop task after the vHIE in 1PP; also, the lDLPFC activity increased coherently. Clinically, these results might be exploited to train cognition and body simultaneously. Theoretically, we proved that the sense of body ownership and agency can affect other parameters, even in the absence of actual movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalila Burin
- Smart Aging International Research Center (SAIRC), Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryocho, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer (IDAC), Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryocho, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Yingxu Liu
- Smart Aging International Research Center (SAIRC), Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryocho, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Noriki Yamaya
- Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer (IDAC), Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryocho, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Ryuta Kawashima
- Smart Aging International Research Center (SAIRC), Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryocho, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer (IDAC), Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryocho, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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