On-site provision of substance abuse treatment services at community health centers

Concept Analysis and Proposed Definition of Community Health Center

Background: Community health centers (CHCs) have been used for delivery of health services since the 1920s and originally were intended to provide care to underserved populations. CHCs have become an integral part of healthcare systems in many countries; however, the term CHC is used synonymously with other concepts and there is no clear definition for CHC. The purpose of our concept analysis was to determine how CHCs are described in the literature and to develop a concept definition for CHC. Methods: Informed by the 8-step process described by Walker and Avant, we searched for literature spanning disciplines within health, business, and policy. We used a systematic review process to identify a range of peer-reviewed articles that help illustrate the attributes, antecedents, and consequences of CHCs. A total of 102 articles from 7 databases were included in our concept analysis. Results: We distinguished 6 attributes of a CHC: primary care; accessibility; preventative care; defined population; health promotion; and comprehensive and integrated care. About 4 antecedents fundamental to a CHC included: secure funding; vision and support; adequate human resources; and governance structure. Consequences of CHCs are improved health outcomes, efficiency, and cost-effective provision of healthcare services. Conclusions: Our concept analysis revealed core characteristics of CHCs that assisted us in synthesizing a concept definition for CHC. These characteristics and our proposed definition will help provide clarity on the concept of CHC to benefit evaluation, research, and policy development of CHCs.

A study of pathways to care among opioid dependent individuals seeking treatment at a community de-addiction clinic in India

Drug use, including opioid use disorder, is one of the rapidly rising and serious problems affecting populations globally. There is a treatment gap and delay in presentation of drug users to treatment centers. The present study aimed at assessing the pathways to care among opioid-dependent individuals seeking treatment from a community-based treatment center in India. In a cross-sectional observational study conducted at a community clinic of the National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre (NDDTC), New Delhi, India, a total of 100 treatment-seeking drug users (age 18-60 years) fulfilling DSM IV TR criteria for opioid dependence were recruited. The data were collected using a semistructured pro forma based on patient self-report and the encounter form used in the World Health Organization (WHO) Pathway Study. All participants were male, were mostly married, were employed, and belonged to nuclear families. Ninety-eight percent of participants has ever used heroin in a dependent fashion and 20% were using it currently. Mean age of the participants was 40.83 years (SD 12.7). Median age of onset of heroin use was 22 years (IQR 12). Median duration of heroin use was 138 months (IQR 132). Only 21% of participants visited the community deaddiction clinic at the first contact with care. The median time for first treatment-seeking attempt was 9.5 years (IQR 7). The study findings suggest significant delay between onset of drug-related problems and first treatment contact. There is a need to increase the availability and accessibility of treatment services to reduce the delay in treatment seeking.

Initiation and engagement as mechanisms for change caused by collaborative care in opioid and alcohol use disorders

BACKGROUND

To assess the mechanism by which a collaborative care (CC) intervention improves self-reported abstinence among primary care patients with opioid and alcohol use disorders (OAUD) compared to treatment as usual.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis of SUMMIT, a randomized controlled trial of CC for OAUD. Participants were 258 patients with OAUD receiving primary care at a multi-site Federally Qualified Health Center. Using a mediation analysis decomposition of a total effect into a mediated and a direct effect, we examined the effect of CC on abstinence at six months, attributable to the HEDIS treatment initiation and engagement measures for the total sample, for individuals with alcohol use disorders alone, and for those with a co-morbid opioid use disorder.

RESULTS

Although the CC intervention led to an increase in both initiation and engagement, among the full sample, only initiation mediated the effect of the intervention on abstinence (3.8%, CI=[0.4%, 8.3%]; 32% proportion of the total effect). In subgroup analyses, among individuals with comorbid alcohol and opioid use disorders, almost 100% of the total effect was mediated by engagement, but the effect was not significant. This was not observed among the alcohol use disorder only group.

CONCLUSIONS

Among primary care patients with OAUDs, treatment initiation partially mediated the effect of CC on abstinence at 6-months. The current study emphasizes the importance of primary care patients returning for a second substance-use related visit after identification. CC may work differently for people with co-morbid opioid use disorders vs. alcohol use disorders alone.

Medication-Assisted Opioid Treatment Prescribers in Federally Qualified Health Centers: Capacity Lags in Rural Areas

PURPOSE

This study explores correlates of on-site availability of substance use disorder treatment services in federally qualified health centers, including buprenorphine treatment that is critical to addressing the opioid epidemic.

METHODS

We employed descriptive and multivariable analyses with weighted 2010 Assessment of Behavioral Health Services survey data and the 2010 Uniform Data System.

FINDINGS

In 2010, 47.6% of health centers provided on-site substance use disorder treatment, 12.3% provided buprenorphine treatment for opioids, and 38.8% were interested in expanding buprenorphine availability. Urban health centers, those in the West, and health centers with electronic health records had higher odds of offering on-site substance use disorder treatment. Compared with on-site mental health treatment, substance use disorder treatment was available in fewer clinic sites within each organization. Health centers in rural areas had lower odds of providing on-site buprenorphine treatment (OR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.26-0.94), and those in the South had lower odds of providing on-site buprenorphine treatment compared with health centers in other regions. Rural health centers had lower odds of expressing interest in expanding the availability of buprenorphine treatment (OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.35-0.97).

CONCLUSIONS

Improving access to substance use disorder treatment in primary care is a critical part of the strategy to combat the opioid use disorder epidemic. These findings highlight the important role of health centers as portals of access to substance use disorder treatment services in underserved communities. Recent investments to expand treatment capacity in health centers will expand the availability of substance use disorder services, but urban/rural and regional disparities should be monitored.

Receipt of addiction treatment as a consequence of a brief intervention for drug use in primary care: a randomized trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Screening, brief intervention and 'referral to treatment' programs have been promoted widely as US federal policy. Little is known about the efficacy of the RT component (referral to treatment) of brief intervention for motivating patients with unhealthy drug use identified by screening to use addiction treatment. This study aimed to compare receipt of addiction treatment following two types of brief intervention for drug use versus a no-intervention control group among primary care patients screening positive for drug use.

DESIGN

Secondary analyses from a single-site randomized controlled trial.

SETTING

Massachusetts, USA.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 528 adults with Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) drug-specific scores ≥ 4.

INTERVENTIONS

Random assignment to: (1) a 10-15-minute brief negotiated interview (BNI) conducted by health educators (n = 174), (2) a 30-45-minute adaptation of motivational interviewing by Masters-level counselors (MOTIV) (n = 177) or (3) no BI (n = 177). All received a list of treatment and mutual help resources; both intervention protocols included dedicated staff for treatment referrals.

MEASUREMENTS

Receipt of any addiction treatment within 6 months after study entry, assessed in a state-wide database and hospital electronic medical record linked to trial data.

FINDINGS

Among 528 participants, the main drugs used were marijuana (63%), cocaine (19%) and opioids (17%); 46% met past-year drug dependence criteria (short form Composite International Diagnostic Interview); and 10% of MOTIV, 18% of BNI and 17% of control participants had any addiction treatment receipt within 6 months after study entry. There was no significant difference in addiction treatment receipt for BNI versus control [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.11; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.57, 2.15, Hochberg adjusted P = 0.76]. The MOTIV group had lower odds of linking to treatment (AOR = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.17, 0.78, Hochberg adjusted P = 0.02) compared with the no BI group.

CONCLUSION

Brief intervention delivered in primary care for screen-identified drug use did not increase addiction treatment receipt significantly; a motivational interviewing approach appeared to be counterproductive.

Massachusetts Substance Use Disorder Treatment Organizations' Perspectives on the Affordable Care Act: Changes in Payment, Services, and System Design

The Affordable Care Act (ACA) expanded insurance benefits and coverage for substance use disorder (SUD) treatment and encouraged delivery and payment reforms. Massachusetts passed a similar reform in 2006. This study aims to assess Massachusetts SUD treatment organizations' responses to the ACA. Organizational interviews addressing challenges of and responses to the ACA were conducted in person June-December 2014 with 31 leaders at 12 treatment organizations across Massachusetts. Many organizations were affiliated with medical or social services and offered a range of SUD services. Sampling was based on services offered (detoxification only, detoxification and outpatient, outpatient only). Framework analysis was used. Challenges identified were considered similar to ongoing challenges, not unique to the ACA. Organizations experienced insurance expansions in 2006 and faced new challenges, including insurance coverage, payment arrangements, expansion of services, and system design. System design efforts included care coordination/integration, workforce development, and health information technology. Differences in responses related to connections with medical and social service organizations. Many organizations engaged in efforts to respond to changing policies by expanding capacity and services. Offering a range of SUD treatment (e.g., detoxification and outpatient) and affiliating with a medical organization could enable organizations to respond to new insurance, delivery, and payment reforms.

SBIRT as a Vital Sign for Behavioral Health Identification, Diagnosis, and Referral in Community Health Care

The purpose of this quasi-experimental design study was to examine the effectiveness of the behavioral health Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) program at a community health center. The study group was twice as likely (25.3%) to have depression and substance abuse diagnosed compared with the control group (11.4%) (P <.001). Referral rates for the study group were more likely to occur (12.4%) compared with referral rates for the control group (1.0%) (P <.001); however, the kept appointment rates by patients for behavioral health problems referrals remained low for both groups. SBIRT was effectively utilized in a community health center, resulting in increased rates for diagnosis of behavioral health problems and referrals of patients.

Experiences from a community based substance use treatment centre in an urban resettlement colony in India

Background. There are limited community based treatment services for drug dependence in India. Rural areas and urban resettlement colonies are in particular deficient in such services. Aims. The current study aimed at preliminary assessment of substance use disorder management services at a community based substance use treatment clinic in an urban resettlement colony. Methods. The study was carried out at community based substance use treatment centre in a resettlement colony in India. The records of the centre were chart reviewed. Results. A total of 754 patients were registered at the clinic during the study period. Heroin was the primary drug of abuse for 63% of the patients. The mean duration of follow-up for the patients with opioid and alcohol dependence was 13.47 (SD ± 10.37; range 0–39) months. A total of 220 patients of opioid dependence were prescribed substation or abstinence directed therapy. Buprenorphine (87), slow release oral morphine (SROM) (16), and dextropropoxyphene (98) were used for opioid substitution. Conclusion. It is possible to deliver substance use disorder treatment services in community setting. There is a need to develop area specific community based treatment services for substance abuse in socially disadvantaged populations such as urban resettlement colonies.

Integration of substance use disorder services with primary care: health center surveys and qualitative interviews

Background

Each year, nearly 20 million Americans with alcohol or illicit drug dependence do not receive treatment. The Affordable Care Act and parity laws are expected to result in increased access to treatment through integration of substance use disorder (SUD) services with primary care. However, relatively little research exists on the integration of SUD services into primary care settings. Our goal was to assess SUD service integration in California primary care settings and to identify the practice and policy facilitators and barriers encountered by providers who have attempted to integrate these services.

Methods

Primary survey and qualitative interview data were collected from the population of federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) in five California counties known to be engaged in SUD integration efforts was surveyed. From among the organizations that responded to the survey (78% response rate), four were purposively sampled based on their level of integration. Interviews were conducted with management, staff, and patients (n = 18) from these organizations to collect further qualitative information on the barriers and facilitators of integration.

Results

Compared to mental health services, there was a trend for SUD services to be less integrated with primary care, and SUD services were rated significantly less effective. The perceived difference in effectiveness appeared to be due to provider training. Policy suggestions included expanding the SUD workforce that can bill Medicaid, allowing same-day billing of two services, facilitating easier reimbursement for medications, developing the workforce, and increasing community SUD specialty care capacity.

Conclusions

Efforts to integrate SUD services with primary care face significant barriers, many of which arise at the policy level and are addressable.

Managing care for patients with substance abuse disorders at community health centers

Coordinating medical and substance use disorder (SUD) services is associated with good health and treatment outcomes but it is not widely practiced. This may be due to a lack of real-world models for coordinating care. This study examined the operational practices associated with a sample of community health centers (CHCs) identified as effectively coordinating SUD services relative to other CHCs. Case studies were used to describe the process of identifying patient need and linking patients with SA treatment services, and to generate propositions about operational approaches for effectively coordinating care. Integrating behavioral health staff within the primary care team was identified as especially critical for facilitating key care transitions. Additional operational approaches that aim to improve care transitions within and across care settings were identified. Future study will be needed to understand the significance of these approaches in terms of health and treatment outcomes. On-going coordination activities among primary care and SUD provided for shared patients remained a challenge for all sites.

Establishing the feasibility of measuring performance in use of addiction pharmacotherapy

This paper presents the rationale and feasibility of standardized performance measures for use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of substance use disorders (SUD), an evidence-based practice and critical component of treatment that is often underused. These measures have been developed and specified by the Washington Circle, to measure treatment of alcohol and opioid dependence with FDA-approved prescription medications for use in office-based general health and addiction specialty care. Measures were pilot tested in private health plans, the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), and Medicaid. Testing revealed that use of standardized measures using administrative data for overall use and initiation of SUD pharmacotherapy is feasible and practical. Prevalence of diagnoses and use of pharmacotherapy vary widely across health systems. Pharmacotherapy is generally used in a limited portion of those for whom it might be indicated. An important methodological point is that results are sensitive to specifications, so that standardization is critical to measuring performance across systems.

Effect of quality chronic disease management for alcohol and drug dependence on addiction outcomes

We examined the effect of the quality of primary care-based chronic disease management (CDM) for alcohol and/or other drug (AOD) dependence on addiction outcomes. We assessed quality using (1) a visit frequency based measure and (2) a self-reported assessment measuring alignment with the chronic care model. The visit frequency based measure had no significant association with addiction outcomes. The self-reported measure of care-when care was at a CDM clinic-was associated with lower drug addiction severity. The self-reported assessment of care from any healthcare source (CDM clinic or elsewhere) was associated with lower alcohol addiction severity and abstinence. These findings suggest that high quality CDM for AOD dependence may improve addiction outcomes. Quality measures based upon alignment with the chronic care model may better capture features of effective CDM care than a visit frequency measure.

Development and initial feasibility of an organizational measure of behavioral health integration in medical care settings

In the advent of health care reform, models are sought to integrate behavioral health and routine medical care services. Historically, the behavioral health specialty has not itself been integrated, but instead bifurcated by substance use and mental health across treatment systems, care providers and even research. With the present opportunity to transform the health care delivery system, it is incumbent upon policymakers, researchers and clinicians to avoid repeating this historical error, and provide integrated behavioral health services in medical contexts. An organizational measure designed to assess this capacity is described: the Dual Diagnosis Capability in Health Care Settings (DDCHCS). The DDCHCS was used to assess a sample of federally-qualified health centers (N=13) on the degree of behavioral health integration. The measure was found to be feasible and sensitive to detecting variation in integrated behavioral health services capacity. Three of the 13 agencies were dual diagnosis capable, with significant variation in DDCHCS dimensions measuring staffing, treatment practices and program milieu. In general, mental health services were more integrated than substance use. Future research should consider a revised version of the measure, a larger and more representative sample, and linking organizational capacity with patient outcomes.