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Vitku J, Skodova T, Varausova A, Gadus L, Michnova L, Horackova L, Kolatorova L, Simkova M, Heracek J. Endocrine Disruptors and Estrogens in Human Prostatic Tissue. Physiol Res 2023; 72:S411-S422. [PMID: 38116777 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.935246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Endocrine disruptors (EDs) are ubiquitous substances both in the environment and everyday products that interfere with the hormonal system. Growing evidence demonstrates their adverse effects on the organism, including the reproductive system and the prostate, owing to their (anti)estrogenic or antiandrogenic effects. Since EDs can interact with steroid hormone actions on-site, understanding the levels of intraprostatic EDs in conjunction with steroids may hold particular significance. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a method for determining estrogens, various groups of EDs (bisphenols, parabens, oxybenzone and nonylphenol) and phytoestrogens in their unconjugated and conjugated forms in prostate tissue by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and subsequently analyze 20 human prostate tissue samples. The method enabled 20 compounds to be analyzed: estrogens (estrone, estradiol, estriol), bisphenols (bisphenol A- BPA, BPS, BPF, BPAF, BPAP, BPZ, BPP), parabens (methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, butyl-, benzyl- paraben), oxybenzone, nonylphenol and phytoestrogens (daidzein, genistein, equol) with LLOQs between 0.017-2.86 pg/mg of tissue. The most frequently detected EDs in prostate tissues were propylparaben (conjugated and unconjugated forms in 100 % of tissues), methylparaben (unconjugated in 45 % and conjugated in 100 %), ethylparaben (unconjugated in 25 % and conjugated in 100 % BPA (unconjugated in 35 % and conjugated in 60 % and oxybenzone (both forms in 45 % To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study detecting EDs, phytoestrogens and estriol conjugate (E3C) in the prostate. E3C was the most abundant estrogen in prostatic tissue. This highlights the need for further explorations into estrogen metabolism within the prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Vitku
- Institute of Endocrinology, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Dewaele A, Dujardin E, André M, Albina A, Jammes H, Giton F, Sellem E, Jolivet G, Pailhoux E, Pannetier M. Absence of Testicular Estrogen Leads to Defects in Spermatogenesis and Increased Semen Abnormalities in Male Rabbits. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:2070. [PMID: 36360307 PMCID: PMC9690781 DOI: 10.3390/genes13112070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogens are steroid hormones produced by the aromatization of androgens by the aromatase enzyme, encoded by the CYP19A1 gene. Although generally referred to as "female sex hormones", estrogen is also produced in the adult testes of many mammals, including humans. To better understand the function of estrogens in the male, we used the rabbit model which is an important biomedical model. First, the expression of CYP19A1 transcripts was localized mainly in meiotic germ cells. Thus, testicular estrogen appears to be produced inside the seminiferous tubules. Next, the cells expressing ESR1 and ESR2 were identified, showing that estrogens could exert their function on post-meiotic germ cells in the tubules and play a role during sperm maturation, since ESR1 and ESR2 were detected in the cauda epididymis. Then, CRISPR/Cas9 CYP19A1-/- genetically modified rabbits were analyzed. CYP19A1-/- males showed decreased fertility with lower sperm count associated with hypo-spermatogenesis and lower spermatid number. Germ/sperm cell DNA methylation was unchanged, while sperm parameters were affected as CYP19A1-/- males exhibited reduced sperm motility associated with increased flagellar defects. In conclusion, testicular estrogens could be involved in the spermatocyte-spermatid transition in the testis, and in the acquisition of sperm motility in the epididymis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Dewaele
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Emilie Dujardin
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Marjolaine André
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Audrey Albina
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Hélène Jammes
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Frank Giton
- APHP, Pôle Biologie-Pathologie Henri Mondor, 94040 Créteil, France
- INSERM IMRB U955, 94010 Créteil, France
| | - Eli Sellem
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Geneviève Jolivet
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Eric Pailhoux
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Maëlle Pannetier
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INRAE, BREED, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
- École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, BREED, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Rusidzé M, Faure MC, Sicard P, Raymond-Letron I, Giton F, Vessieres E, Prevot V, Henrion D, Arnal JF, Cornil CA, Lenfant F. Loss of function of the maternal membrane oestrogen receptor ERα alters expansion of trophoblast cells and impacts mouse fertility. Development 2022; 149:dev200683. [PMID: 36239412 PMCID: PMC9720743 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 03/31/2024]
Abstract
The binding of 17β-oestradiol to oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα) plays a crucial role in the control of reproduction, acting through both nuclear and membrane-initiated signalling. To study the physiological role of membrane ERα in the reproductive system, we used the C451A-ERα mouse model with selective loss of function of membrane ERα. Despite C451A-ERα mice being described as sterile, daily weighing and ultrasound imaging revealed that homozygous females do become pregnant, allowing the investigation of the role of ERα during pregnancy for the first time. All neonatal deaths of the mutant offspring mice resulted from delayed parturition associated with failure in pre-term progesterone withdrawal. Moreover, pregnant C451A-ERα females exhibited partial intrauterine embryo arrest at about E9.5. The observed embryonic lethality resulted from altered expansion of Tpbpa-positive spiral artery-associated trophoblast giant cells into the utero-placental unit, which is associated with an imbalance in expression of angiogenic factors. Together, these processes control the trophoblast-mediated spiral arterial remodelling. Hence, loss of membrane ERα within maternal tissues clearly alters the activity of invasive trophoblast cells during placentogenesis. This previously unreported function of membrane ERα could open new avenues towards a better understanding of human pregnancy-associated pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Rusidzé
- Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases (I2MC) Equipe 4, Inserm U1297-UPS, CHU, Toulouse 31432, France
| | | | - Pierre Sicard
- IPAM, BioCampus Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Montpellier 34295, France
| | - Isabelle Raymond-Letron
- Institut Restore, Université de Toulouse, CNRS U-5070, EFS, ENVT, Inserm U1031, Toulouse 31076, France
| | - Frank Giton
- APHP H.Mondor - IMRB - INSERM U955, Créteil 94010, France
| | - Emilie Vessieres
- Angers University, MITOVASC, CarMe team, CNRS UMR 6015, INSERM U1083, Angers 49055, France
| | - Vincent Prevot
- University of Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Laboratory of Development and Plasticity of the Neuroendocrine Brain, Lille Neuroscience and Cognition, UMR-S 1172, FHU 1000 Days for Health, Lille 59000, France
| | - Daniel Henrion
- Angers University, MITOVASC, CarMe team, CNRS UMR 6015, INSERM U1083, Angers 49055, France
| | | | | | - Françoise Lenfant
- Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases (I2MC) Equipe 4, Inserm U1297-UPS, CHU, Toulouse 31432, France
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Lecante LL, Leverrier-Penna S, Gicquel T, Giton F, Costet N, Desdoits-Lethimonier C, Lesné L, Fromenty B, Lavoué V, Rolland AD, Mazaud-Guittot S. Acetaminophen (APAP, Paracetamol) Interferes With the First Trimester Human Fetal Ovary Development in an Ex Vivo Model. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022; 107:1647-1661. [PMID: 35147701 PMCID: PMC9113793 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgac080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Acetaminophen (APAP, paracetamol) is widely used by pregnant women. Although long considered safe, growing evidence indicates that APAP is an endocrine disruptor since in utero exposure may be associated with a higher risk of male genital tract abnormalities. In rodents, fetal exposure has long-term effects on the reproductive function of female offspring. Human studies have also suggested harmful APAP exposure effects. OBJECTIVE Given that disruption of fetal ovarian development may impact women's reproductive health, we investigated the effects of APAP on fetal human ovaries in culture. DESIGN AND SETTING Human ovarian fragments from 284 fetuses aged 7 to 12 developmental weeks (DW) were cultivated ex vivo for 7 days in the presence of human-relevant concentrations of APAP (10-8 to 10-3 M) or vehicle control. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Outcomes included examination of postculture tissue morphology, cell viability, apoptosis, and quantification of hormones, APAP, and APAP metabolites in conditioned culture media. RESULTS APAP reduced the total cell number specifically in 10- to 12-DW ovaries, induced cell death, and decreased KI67-positive cell density independently of fetal age. APAP targeted subpopulations of germ cells and disrupted human fetal ovarian steroidogenesis, without affecting prostaglandin or inhibin B production. Human fetal ovaries were able to metabolize APAP. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that APAP can impact first trimester human fetal ovarian development, especially during a 10- to 12-DW window of heightened sensitivity. Overall, APAP behaves as an endocrine disruptor in the fetal human ovary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia L Lecante
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail), Rennes, France
| | - Sabrina Leverrier-Penna
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail), Rennes, France
| | - Thomas Gicquel
- Inserm, Inrae, Univ Rennes, Institut NuMeCan (Nutrition Metabolism and Cancer), Rennes, France
- Clinical and forensic Toxicology Laboratory Rennes University Hospital, Rennes, France
| | - Frank Giton
- AP-HP, Pôle Biologie-Pathologie Henri Mondor, Créteil, France
- Inserm IMRB, Faculté de Santé, Créteil, France
| | - Nathalie Costet
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail), Rennes, France
| | | | - Laurianne Lesné
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail), Rennes, France
| | - Bernard Fromenty
- Inserm, Inrae, Univ Rennes, Institut NuMeCan (Nutrition Metabolism and Cancer), Rennes, France
| | - Vincent Lavoué
- CHU Rennes, Service Gynécologie et Obstétrique, Rennes, France
| | - Antoine D Rolland
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail), Rennes, France
| | - Séverine Mazaud-Guittot
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail), Rennes, France
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Garrel G, Rouch C, L’Hôte D, Tazi S, Kassis N, Giton F, Dairou J, Dournaud P, Gressens P, Magnan C, Cruciani-Guglielmacci C, Cohen-Tannoudji J. Disruption of Pituitary Gonadotrope Activity in Male Rats After Short- or Long-Term High-Fat Diets Is Not Associated With Pituitary Inflammation. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:877999. [PMID: 35498414 PMCID: PMC9043610 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.877999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Overnutrition is associated with the activation of inflammatory pathways in metabolically linked organs and an early hypothalamic inflammation is now known to disrupt the central control of metabolic function. Because we demonstrated that fatty acids (FA) target the pituitary and affect gonadotropin synthesis, we asked whether overnutrition induces pituitary inflammation that may contribute to obesity-associated disorders in the control of reproduction. We analyzed pituitary inflammation and hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in male rats fed a short- (4 weeks) or long-term (20 weeks) high-fat diet. The effect of diet enrichment with the ω3 polyunsaturated FA, DHA, was also analyzed. After only 4 weeks and before weight gain of rats, high-fat diet caused a significant decrease in pituitary gonadotropin and hypothalamic GnRH transcript levels despite unchanged testosterone and inhibin B levels. Contrasting with the hypothalamus, there was no concomitant increases in gene expression of pituitary inflammatory mediators and even a reduction of prototypical cytokines such as interleukin-1β and TNF-α. No inflammation was still detected in the pituitary after 20 weeks although gonadotropin transcripts and circulating levels were still altered. Gonadotropins were the only pituitary hormones remaining affected at this stage of the regimen, underlying a differential susceptibility of pituitary lineages to metabolic disorders. DHA enrichment of the diet did not prevent alterations of gonadotrope activity due to either a long- or a short-term high-fat diet although it blocked early hypothalamic inflammation and attenuated several metabolic effects. Taken together, our findings suggest that high-fat diet-induced defects in gonadotrope activity in male rats occurred despite a lack of pituitary inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghislaine Garrel
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Inserm, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
| | - Claude Rouch
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
| | - David L’Hôte
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Inserm, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
| | - Salma Tazi
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Inserm, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
| | - Nadim Kassis
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
| | - Frank Giton
- AP-HP, Pôle biologie-Pathologie Henri Mondor, Inserm IMRB U955, Créteil, France
| | - Julien Dairou
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie et de Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Christophe Magnan
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
| | | | - Joëlle Cohen-Tannoudji
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Inserm, Unité de Biologie Fonctionnelle et Adaptative, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Joëlle Cohen-Tannoudji,
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6
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Jolivet G, Daniel-Carlier N, Harscoët E, Airaud E, Dewaele A, Pierson C, Giton F, Boulanger L, Daniel N, Mandon-Pépin B, Pannetier M, Pailhoux E. Fetal Estrogens are not Involved in Sex Determination But Critical for Early Ovarian Differentiation in Rabbits. Endocrinology 2022; 163:6382335. [PMID: 34614143 PMCID: PMC8598387 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
AROMATASE is encoded by the CYP19A1 gene and is the cytochrome enzyme responsible for estrogen synthesis in vertebrates. In most mammals, a peak of CYP19A1 gene expression occurs in the fetal XX gonad when sexual differentiation is initiated. To elucidate the role of this peak, we produced 3 lines of TALEN genetically edited CYP19A1 knockout (KO) rabbits that were devoid of any estradiol production. All the KO XX rabbits developed as females with aberrantly small ovaries in adulthood, an almost empty reserve of primordial follicles, and very few large antrum follicles. Ovulation never occurred. Our histological, immunohistological, and transcriptomic analyses showed that the estradiol surge in the XX fetal rabbit gonad is not essential to its determination as an ovary, or for meiosis. However, it is mandatory for the high proliferation and differentiation of both somatic and germ cells, and consequently for establishment of the ovarian reserve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève Jolivet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Correspondence: Geneviève Jolivet, domaine de Vilvert, INRAE, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | | | - Erwana Harscoët
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Eloïse Airaud
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Aurélie Dewaele
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Cloé Pierson
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Frank Giton
- AP-HP, Pôle biologie-Pathologie Henri Mondor, Créteil, France; INSERM IMRB U955, Créteil, France
| | - Laurent Boulanger
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Nathalie Daniel
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | - Maëlle Pannetier
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Eric Pailhoux
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, ENVA, UVSQ, BREED, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Avet C, Paul EN, Garrel G, Grange-Messent V, L'Hôte D, Denoyelle C, Corre R, Dupret JM, Lanone S, Boczkowski J, Simon V, Cohen-Tannoudji J. Carbon Black Nanoparticles Selectively Alter Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Expression in vitro and in vivo in Female Mice. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:780698. [PMID: 34938157 PMCID: PMC8685435 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.780698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxic effects of nanoparticles on female reproductive health have been documented but the underlying mechanisms still need to be clarified. Here, we investigated the effect of carbon black nanoparticles (CB NPs) on the pituitary gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are key regulators of gonadal gametogenesis and steroidogenesis. To that purpose, we subjected adult female mice to a weekly non-surgical intratracheal administration of CB NPs at an occupationally relevant dose over 4 weeks. We also analyzed the effects of CB NPs in vitro, using both primary cultures of pituitary cells and the LβT2 gonadotrope cell line. We report here that exposure to CB NPs does not disrupt estrous cyclicity but increases both circulating FSH levels and pituitary FSH β-subunit gene (Fshb) expression in female mice without altering circulating LH levels. Similarly, treatment of anterior pituitary or gonadotrope LβT2 cells with increasing concentrations of CB NPs dose-dependently up-regulates FSH but not LH gene expression or release. Moreover, CB NPs enhance the stimulatory effect of GnRH on Fshb expression in LβT2 cells without interfering with LH regulation. We provide evidence that CB NPs are internalized by LβT2 cells and rapidly activate the cAMP/PKA pathway. We further show that pharmacological inhibition of PKA significantly attenuates the stimulatory effect of CB NPs on Fshb expression. Altogether, our study demonstrates that exposure to CB NPs alters FSH but not LH expression and may thus lead to gonadotropin imbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Avet
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel N Paul
- Inserm U955, IMRB, U 955, Faculté de Médecine, équipe 04, Université Paris Est (UPEC), Créteil, France
| | - Ghislaine Garrel
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Valérie Grange-Messent
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Inserm, Neuroscience Paris Seine - Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Paris, France
| | - David L'Hôte
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Chantal Denoyelle
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Raphaël Corre
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, Paris, France
| | | | - Sophie Lanone
- Inserm U955, IMRB, U 955, Faculté de Médecine, équipe 04, Université Paris Est (UPEC), Créteil, France
| | - Jorge Boczkowski
- Inserm U955, IMRB, U 955, Faculté de Médecine, équipe 04, Université Paris Est (UPEC), Créteil, France
| | - Violaine Simon
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, Paris, France
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Foster PA. Steroid Sulphatase and Its Inhibitors: Past, Present, and Future. Molecules 2021; 26:2852. [PMID: 34064842 PMCID: PMC8151039 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Steroid sulphatase (STS), involved in the hydrolysis of steroid sulphates, plays an important role in the formation of both active oestrogens and androgens. Since these steroids significantly impact the proliferation of both oestrogen- and androgen-dependent cancers, many research groups over the past 30 years have designed and developed STS inhibitors. One of the main contributors to this field has been Prof. Barry Potter, previously at the University of Bath and now at the University of Oxford. Upon Prof. Potter's imminent retirement, this review takes a look back at the work on STS inhibitors and their contribution to our understanding of sulphate biology and as potential therapeutic agents in hormone-dependent disease. A number of potent STS inhibitors have now been developed, one of which, Irosustat (STX64, 667Coumate, BN83495), remains the only one to have completed phase I/II clinical trials against numerous indications (breast, prostate, endometrial). These studies have provided new insights into the origins of androgens and oestrogens in women and men. In addition to the therapeutic role of STS inhibition in breast and prostate cancer, there is now good evidence to suggest they may also provide benefits in patients with colorectal and ovarian cancer, and in treating endometriosis. To explore the potential of STS inhibitors further, a number of second- and third-generation inhibitors have been developed, together with single molecules that possess aromatase-STS inhibitory properties. The further development of potent STS inhibitors will allow their potential therapeutic value to be explored in a variety of hormone-dependent cancers and possibly other non-oncological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A. Foster
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; ; Tel.: +44-121-414-3776
- Centre for Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Birmingham, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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9
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Chung CC, Lin YK, Kao YH, Lin SH, Chen YJ. Physiological testosterone attenuates profibrotic activities of rat cardiac fibroblasts through modulation of nitric oxide and calcium homeostasis. Endocr J 2021; 68:307-315. [PMID: 33115984 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej20-0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Testosterone deficiency is associated with poor prognosis among patients with chronic heart failure (HF). Physiological testosterone improves the exercise capacity of patients with HF. In this study, we evaluated whether treatment with physiological testosterone contributes to anti-fibrogenesis by modifying calcium homeostasis in cardiac fibroblasts and we studied the underlying mechanisms. Nitric oxide (NO) analyses, calcium (Ca2+) fluorescence, and Western blotting were performed in primary isolated rat cardiac fibroblasts with or without (control cells) testosterone (10, 100, 1,000 nmol/L) treatment for 48 hours. Physiological testosterone (10 nmol/L) increased NO production and phosphorylation at the inhibitory site of the inositol trisphosphate (IP3) receptor, thereby reducing Ca2+ entry, phosphorylated Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) expression, type I and type III pro-collagen production. Non-physiological testosterone-treated fibroblasts exhibited similar NO and collagen production capabilities as compared to control (testosterone deficient) fibroblasts. These effects were blocked by co-treatment with NO inhibitor (L-NG-nitro arginine methyl ester [L-NAME], 100 μmol/L). In the presence of the IP3 receptor inhibitor (2-aminoethyl diphenylborinate [2-APB], 50 μmol/L), testosterone-deficient and physiological testosterone-treated fibroblasts exhibited similar phosphorylated CaMKII expression. When treated with 2-APB or CaMKII inhibitor (KN93, 10 μmol/L), testosterone-deficient and physiological testosterone-treated fibroblasts exhibited similar type I, and type III collagen production. In conclusion, physiological testosterone activates NO production, and attenuates the IP3 receptor/Ca2+ entry/CaMKII signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting the collagen production capability of cardiac fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Chih Chung
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Taipei Heart Institute, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Kuo Lin
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Taipei Heart Institute, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsun Kao
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shyh-Hsiang Lin
- School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Jen Chen
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Taipei Heart Institute, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
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10
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Gagniac L, Rusidzé M, Boudou F, Cagnet S, Adlanmerini M, Jeannot P, Gaide N, Giton F, Besson A, Weyl A, Gourdy P, Raymond-Letron I, Arnal JF, Brisken C, Lenfant F. Membrane expression of the estrogen receptor ERα is required for intercellular communications in the mammary epithelium. Development 2020; 147:dev.182303. [PMID: 32098763 PMCID: PMC7075076 DOI: 10.1242/dev.182303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
17β-Estradiol induces the postnatal development of mammary gland and influences breast carcinogenesis by binding to the estrogen receptor ERα. ERα acts as a transcription factor but also elicits rapid signaling through a fraction of ERα expressed at the membrane. Here, we have used the C451A-ERα mouse model mutated for the palmitoylation site to understand how ERα membrane signaling affects mammary gland development. Although the overall structure of physiological mammary gland development is slightly affected, both epithelial fragments and basal cells isolated from C451A-ERα mammary glands failed to grow when engrafted into cleared wild-type fat pads, even in pregnant hosts. Similarly, basal cells purified from hormone-stimulated ovariectomized C451A-ERα mice did not produce normal outgrowths. Ex vivo, C451A-ERα basal cells displayed reduced matrix degradation capacities, suggesting altered migration properties. More importantly, C451A-ERα basal cells recovered in vivo repopulating ability when co-transplanted with wild-type luminal cells and specifically with ERα-positive luminal cells. Transcriptional profiling identified crucial paracrine luminal-to-basal signals. Altogether, our findings uncover an important role for membrane ERα expression in promoting intercellular communications that are essential for mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurine Gagniac
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Mariam Rusidzé
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Frederic Boudou
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Stephanie Cagnet
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Pauline Jeannot
- LBCMCP, Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse 31062, France
| | - Nicolas Gaide
- LabHPEC Laboratoire d'HistoPathologie Expérimentale et Comparée STROMALab, Université de Toulouse, CNRS ERL5311, EFS, ENVT, Inserm U1031, UPS, Toulouse 31300, France
| | - Frank Giton
- APHP H.Mondor- IMRB - INSERM U955, Créteil 94010, France
| | - Arnaud Besson
- LBCMCP, Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse 31062, France
| | - Ariane Weyl
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Pierre Gourdy
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Isabelle Raymond-Letron
- LabHPEC Laboratoire d'HistoPathologie Expérimentale et Comparée STROMALab, Université de Toulouse, CNRS ERL5311, EFS, ENVT, Inserm U1031, UPS, Toulouse 31300, France
| | | | - Cathrin Brisken
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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11
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Tissue steroid levels in response to reduced testicular estrogen synthesis in the male pig, Sus scrofa. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215390. [PMID: 30986232 PMCID: PMC6464225 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Production of steroid hormones is complex and dependent upon steroidogenic enzymes, cofactors, receptors, and transporters expressed within a tissue. Collectively, these factors create an environment for tissue-specific steroid hormone profiles and potentially tissue-specific responses to drug administration. Our objective was to assess steroid production, including sulfated steroid metabolites in the boar testis, prostate, and liver following inhibition of aromatase, the enzyme that converts androgen precursors to estrogens. Boars were treated with the aromatase inhibitor, letrozole from 11 to 16 weeks of age and littermate boars received the canola oil vehicle. Steroid profiles were evaluated in testes, prostate, and livers of 16, 20, and 40 week old boars using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Testis, prostate, and liver had unique steroid profiles in vehicle-treated animals. Only C18 steroid hormones were altered by treatment with the aromatase inhibitor, letrozole; no significant differences were detected in any of the C19 or C21 steroids evaluated. Testis was the only tissue with significantly decreased free estrogens following treatment with the aromatase inhibitor; estrone and estradiol concentrations were lower (p < 0.05) in testes from 16, 20, and 40 week letrozole-treated boars. However, concentrations of the sulfated conjugates, estrone-sulfate and estradiol-sulfate, were significantly decreased (p<0.05) in 16 and 20 week boar testes, prostates, and livers from letrozole-treated boars. Hence, the distribution of estrogens between the free and conjugated forms was altered in a tissue-specific manner following inhibition of aromatase. The results suggest sulfated testicular estrogens are important estrogen precursors for the prostate, potentially enabling peripheral target tissues to synthesize free estrogens in the male pig.
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12
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Potter BVL. SULFATION PATHWAYS: Steroid sulphatase inhibition via aryl sulphamates: clinical progress, mechanism and future prospects. J Mol Endocrinol 2018; 61:T233-T252. [PMID: 29618488 DOI: 10.1530/jme-18-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Steroid sulphatase is an emerging drug target for the endocrine therapy of hormone-dependent diseases, catalysing oestrogen sulphate hydrolysis to oestrogen. Drug discovery, developing the core aryl O-sulphamate pharmacophore, has led to steroidal and non-steroidal drugs entering numerous clinical trials, with promising results in oncology and women's health. Steroidal oestrogen sulphamate derivatives were the first irreversible active-site-directed inhibitors and one was developed clinically as an oral oestradiol pro-drug and for endometriosis applications. This review summarizes work leading to the therapeutic concept of sulphatase inhibition, clinical trials executed to date and new insights into the mechanism of inhibition of steroid sulphatase. To date, the non-steroidal sulphatase inhibitor Irosustat has been evaluated clinically in breast cancer, alone and in combination, in endometrial cancer and in prostate cancer. The versatile core pharmacophore both imbues attractive pharmaceutical properties and functions via three distinct mechanisms of action, as a pro-drug, an enzyme active-site-modifying motif, likely through direct sulphamoyl group transfer, and as a structural component augmenting activity, for example by enhancing interactions at the colchicine binding site of tubulin. Preliminary new structural data on the Pseudomonas aeruginosa arylsulphatase enzyme suggest two possible sulphamate-based adducts with the active site formylglycine as candidates for the inhibition end product via sulphamoyl or sulphonylamine transfer, and a speculative choice is suggested. The clinical status of sulphatase inhibition is surveyed and how it might develop in the future. Also discussed are dual-targeting approaches, development of 2-substituted steroidal sulphamates and non-steroidal derivatives as multi-targeting agents for hormone-independent tumours, with other emerging directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry V L Potter
- Medicinal Chemistry & Drug DiscoveryDepartment of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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13
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A novel action of follicle-stimulating hormone in the ovary promotes estradiol production without inducing excessive follicular growth before puberty. Sci Rep 2017; 7:46222. [PMID: 28397811 PMCID: PMC5387682 DOI: 10.1038/srep46222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
In cyclic females, FSH stimulates ovarian estradiol (E2) production and follicular growth up to the terminal stage. A transient elevation in circulating FSH and E2 levels occurs shortly after birth. But what could be the action of FSH on the ovary during this period, and in particular how it stimulates ovarian steroidogenesis without supporting terminal follicular maturation is intriguing. By experimentally manipulating FSH levels, we demonstrate in mice that the mid-infantile elevation in FSH is mandatory for E2 production by the immature ovary, but that it does not stimulate follicle growth. Importantly, FSH increases aromatase expression to stimulate E2 synthesis, however it becomes unable to induce cyclin D2, a major driver of granulosa cell proliferation. Besides, although FSH prematurely induces luteinizing hormone (LH) receptor expression in granulosa cells, LH pathway is not functional in these cells to induce their terminal differentiation. In line with these results, supplying infantile mice with a superovulation regimen exacerbates E2 production, but it does not stimulate the growth of follicles and it does not induce ovulation. Overall, our findings unveil a regulation whereby high postnatal FSH concentrations ensure the supply of E2 required for programming adult reproductive function without inducing follicular maturation before puberty.
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14
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Role of OATP transporters in steroid uptake by prostate cancer cells in vivo. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2016; 20:20-27. [PMID: 27645128 PMCID: PMC5762123 DOI: 10.1038/pcan.2016.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiologic and in vitro studies suggest that SLCO-encoded organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) transporters influence the response of prostate cancer (PCa) to androgen deprivation by altering intratumor androgens. We have previously shown that castration-resistant metastases express multiple SLCO transporters at significantly higher levels than primary PCa, suggesting that OATP-mediated steroid transport is biologically relevant in advanced disease. However, whether OATP-mediated steroid transport can actually modify prostate tumor androgen levels in vivo has never been demonstrated. METHODS We sought to determine whether OATP-mediated steroid transport can measurably alter PCa androgen levels in vivo. We evaluated the uptake of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEAS), E1S and testosterone in LNCaP cells engineered to express OATP1B1, 1B3, 2B1 or 4A1. We measured the uptake via administration of tritiated steroids to castrate mice bearing vector control or OATP1B1-, 2B1- or 4A1-expressing xenografts. We treated tumor-bearing mice with DHEAS and testosterone at physiologically relevant levels and measured intratumor accumulation of administered steroids by mass spectrometry. RESULTS OATP1B1- and 2B-expressing xenografts each showed a threefold increase in tritiated-DHEAS uptake vs vector controls (P=0.002 and P=0.036, respectively). At circulating DHEAS levels similar to those in abiraterone-treated men (~15 μg dl-1), OATP1B1- and 2B1-expressing xenografts showed a 3.9-fold (P=0.057) and 1.9-fold (P=0.048) increase in tumor accumulation of DHEAS and a 1.6-fold (P=0.057) and 2.7-fold (P=0.095) increase in DHEA, respectively. At the substantial circulating testosterone levels found in eugonadal men, a consistent effect of OATP1B1, 2B1 or 4A1 on testosterone uptake in vivo was not detected. CONCLUSIONS OATP transporters measurably alter DHEAS uptake and intratumor androgen levels in prostate tumors in vivo, even at circulating androgen levels achieved in abiraterone-treated patients. These novel data emphasize the continued need to inhibit ligand-mediated androgen receptor signaling in PCa tumors, and support prospective evaluation of studies designed to test inhibition of OATP-mediated DHEAS uptake and utilization.
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15
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Rahman HP, Hofland J, Foster PA. In touch with your feminine side: how oestrogen metabolism impacts prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2016; 23:R249-66. [PMID: 27194038 DOI: 10.1530/erc-16-0118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the primary cancer in males, with increasing global incidence rates making this malignancy a significant healthcare burden. Androgens not only promote normal prostate maturity but also influence the development and progression of prostate cancer. Intriguingly, evidence now suggests endogenous and exogenous oestrogens, in the form of phytoestrogens, may be equally as relevant as androgens in prostate cancer growth. The prostate gland has the molecular mechanisms, catalysed by steroid sulphatase (STS), to unconjugate and utilise circulating oestrogens. Furthermore, prostate tissue also expresses enzymes essential for local oestrogen metabolism, including aromatase (CYP19A1) and 3β- and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Increased expression of these enzymes in malignant prostate tissue compared with normal prostate indicates that oestrogen synthesis is favoured in malignancy and thus may influence tumour progression. In contrast to previous reviews, here we comprehensively explore the epidemiological and scientific evidence on how oestrogens impact prostate cancer, particularly focusing on pre-receptor oestrogen metabolism and subsequent molecular action. We analyse how molecular mechanisms and metabolic pathways involved in androgen and oestrogen synthesis intertwine to alter prostate tissue. Furthermore, we speculate on whether oestrogen receptor status in the prostate affects progression of this malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habibur P Rahman
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems ResearchUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Johannes Hofland
- Department of Internal MedicineErasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul A Foster
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems ResearchUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Centre for EndocrinologyDiabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Healthcare Partners, Birmingham, UK
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16
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Anti-Müllerian hormone: a new actor of sexual dimorphism in pituitary gonadotrope activity before puberty. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23790. [PMID: 27030385 PMCID: PMC4815011 DOI: 10.1038/srep23790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) contributes to male sexual differentiation and acts on gonads of both sexes. Identification of AMH receptivity in both pituitary and brain has led to the intriguing idea that AMH participates to the hypothalamic-pituitary control of reproduction, however in vivo experimental evidence is still lacking. We show that AMH stimulates secretion and pituitary gene expression of the gonadotropin FSH in vivo in rats. AMH action is sex-dependent, being restricted to females and occurring before puberty. Accordingly, we report higher levels of pituitary AMH receptor transcripts in immature females. We show that AMH is functionally coupled to the Smad pathway in LβT2 gonadotrope cells and dose-dependently increases Fshb transcript levels. Furthermore, AMH was shown to establish complex interrelations with canonical FSH regulators as it cooperates with activin to induce Fshb expression whereas it reduces BMP2 action. We report that GnRH interferes with AMH by decreasing AMH receptivity in vivo in females. Moreover, AMH specifically regulates FSH and not LH, indicating that AMH is a factor contributing to the differential regulation of gonadotropins. Overall, our study uncovers a new role for AMH in regulating gonadotrope function and suggests that AMH participates in the postnatal elevation of FSH secretion in females.
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17
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Mueller JW, Gilligan LC, Idkowiak J, Arlt W, Foster PA. The Regulation of Steroid Action by Sulfation and Desulfation. Endocr Rev 2015; 36:526-63. [PMID: 26213785 PMCID: PMC4591525 DOI: 10.1210/er.2015-1036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Steroid sulfation and desulfation are fundamental pathways vital for a functional vertebrate endocrine system. After biosynthesis, hydrophobic steroids are sulfated to expedite circulatory transit. Target cells express transmembrane organic anion-transporting polypeptides that facilitate cellular uptake of sulfated steroids. Once intracellular, sulfatases hydrolyze these steroid sulfate esters to their unconjugated, and usually active, forms. Because most steroids can be sulfated, including cholesterol, pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, and estrone, understanding the function, tissue distribution, and regulation of sulfation and desulfation processes provides significant insights into normal endocrine function. Not surprisingly, dysregulation of these pathways is associated with numerous pathologies, including steroid-dependent cancers, polycystic ovary syndrome, and X-linked ichthyosis. Here we provide a comprehensive examination of our current knowledge of endocrine-related sulfation and desulfation pathways. We describe the interplay between sulfatases and sulfotransferases, showing how their expression and regulation influences steroid action. Furthermore, we address the role that organic anion-transporting polypeptides play in regulating intracellular steroid concentrations and how their expression patterns influence many pathologies, especially cancer. Finally, the recent advances in pharmacologically targeting steroidogenic pathways will be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Mueller
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Lorna C Gilligan
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Idkowiak
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Wiebke Arlt
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Paul A Foster
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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