Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: under-recognized and under-treated

Presentation matters: Surface text features and text quality in written narratives of Dutch high school students with and without dyslexia

Presentation features such as spelling, punctuation and handwriting can influence the evaluation of general text quality. High school students with dyslexia might therefore be at a disadvantage, as at least their spelling performance is typically poor(er). Furthermore, these students might show less sophisticated linguistic features of texts, such as word length and sentence complexity, that might also be related to text quality. We compared narratives written by Dutch high school students (mean age 13.7 years) with (n = 28) and without (n = 29) dyslexia. Students with dyslexia's texts contained more spelling errors and poorer handwriting quality, but not more punctuation errors. Teacher-rated general text quality was lower for the texts of students with dyslexia in uncorrected versions. When spelling and punctuation errors were corrected, no teacher-rated text quality differences emerged. No differences in linguistic text features were found. Furthermore, spelling, punctuation and, to a lesser extent, number of words per sentence clause were related to ratings of text quality across participants. These results confirm the influence of presentation features on text quality rating. They encourage teachers to be aware of this effect and emphasize the importance of spelling and writing support and interventions for students with dyslexia throughout education.

Spelling development of children with and without reading difficulties throughout elementary grades: evidence from the Greek orthography

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine the development of spelling in a large sample (N = 503, boys: N = 219) of Greek-speaking children with (N = 41) and without (N = 462) reading difficulties. Children were initially tested in Grades 2-4 and then at five consecutive measurement points over a 3-year period, focusing on how initial reading ability, grade, and gender may moderate the rate of spelling growth. Individual growth curve modeling revealed continuous growth of spelling performance in the total sample, although the growth rate decreased over time for children first tested in Grades 3-4. Spelling growth rate was also significantly slower among children with reading difficulties between Grades 2-4 and 3-5. The two reading groups displayed similar growth rates between Grades 4 and 6. Spelling growth rates did not vary significantly with gender. Overall, our study highlights the persistence of spelling difficulties even after 6 years of systematic teaching in children with reading difficulties. The severe and persistent spelling deficits of Greek-speaking children with reading difficulties may be attributed to the rich morphological system of the Greek language, the intermediate Greek orthographic transparency (in the direction of writing), and their limited experience with print.

Handwriting difficulties in children with dyslexia: Poorer legibility in dictation and alphabet tasks, slowness in the alphabet task

Several studies have shown that children with dyslexia (DYS), in addition to their reading and spelling deficits, encounter handwriting difficulties that are still poorly understood in terms of their nature and origin. The present study aimed to better understand the handwriting difficulties of children with DYS by comparing their handwriting quality and speed in two tasks, a dictation task and an alphabet task, which required fewer spelling skills than the dictation task. Twenty-nine French-speaking children (Mage = 9.5 years) participated in the study, including 18 children with DYS and nine typically developing (TD) children matched on chronological age. The children performed control tasks, a dictation task with words varying in graphic and orthographic complexity and an alphabet writing task. Accuracy, handwriting quality (legibility), and fluency (speed, writing and pause time) were carefully measured using a digital tablet. GLMM analysis and t tests showed that children with DYS made more aesthetic errors (handwriting quality) in both the dictation and alphabet task than TD children. They also wrote more slowly than TD children in the alphabet task (speed, pause time). These findings suggest that children with DYS present handwriting difficulties, even in a simple alphabet task. In dictation, they seem to favour speed at the expense of handwriting quality.

Twice-exceptionality unmasked: A systematic narrative review of the literature on identifying dyslexia in the gifted child

In this systematic narrative review, we synthesised the small existing body of research on children who are gifted and dyslexic (G-D) in order to investigate the claim that G-D students have a unique profile, characterised by well-masked word-level reading and spelling difficulties. Our focus was on both the cognitive and academic profiles of this subgroup of twice-exceptional (2e) children and the assessment protocols used to identify them. Findings suggest that despite having processing deficits associated with dyslexia, G-D students' gifted strengths, especially those relating to oral language, may enable them to compensate for their reading difficulties, at least to an extent that they fail to meet standard diagnostic criteria. However, G-D students also perform poorly on word-level reading, reading fluency and spelling tasks when compared with both control groups and their gifted, non-dyslexic peers, providing clear evidence of impaired achievement. Findings from this review highlight the need for (a) a more nuanced approach to the assessment of students presenting with highly discrepant profiles and (b) future research into both the cognitive and academic profiles and the instructional needs of this highly able yet poorly understood group of students, whose potential may be masked and thus underestimated in the school setting.

Disentangling dyslexia from typical L2-learning in emergent literacy

The present paper assessed how dyslexia can be identified in school children with another language than their first language. Participants were school children with Norwegian as their second language (L2), and two groups of children with Norwegian as their first language (L1): a control group (L1-Con), and a dyslexia group (L1-Dys). All were 2nd and 3rd graders who had attended Norwegian schools from 1st grade on. None of the individuals in L1-Con or the L2 group were identified with any learning disability. However, slow literacy progress was seen in some L2-children. The children were tested individually within the symptomatic and cognitive levels. Results were analysed in two steps: (1) group comparisons; (2) L2 individual profiles and tentative L2 subgrouping. An unexpected L2 profile showed language scores below norm, coupled with some scores within and some scores above norm within the cognitive domain. Case assessment of the L2 group resulted in three subgroups: one comparable to L1-Con, one comparable to L1-Dys, and one with a result in between these two groups. Low linguistic scores cannot be considered valid markers of dyslexia in L2. Within the cognitive domain, a variety of low scores can indicate dyslexia, while high scores can be compensatory.

How do technologies meet the needs of the writer with dyslexia? An examination of functions scaffolding the transcription and proofreading in text production aimed towards researchers and practitioners in education

Technological reading and writing tools can help students with dyslexia improve their writing, but students do not use reading and writing functions as much as expected. However, research addressing relevant technological functions is scarce. This study explored the needs of writers with dyslexia and how technological writing tools developed for three Nordic languages meet these needs. Snowball sampling was used to identify different technological features, spellchecker, word prediction, auto-correction, text-to-speech and speech-to-text functions available in nine widely used programmes were investigated. The results indicated that students with moderate spelling difficulties can now achieve accurate spellings using the most sophisticated spelling aids; however, most of these features require time and attention, and this can disturb writing fluency and hamper text production. The implication of this study is that the underlying conflict between spelling accuracy and writing fluency must be actively managed, which necessitates competence in the use of technological tools for both students and teachers in school. Also, further development of tools for scaffolding transcription must consider the dilemma of achieving both writing fluency and spelling accuracy. Further, the accuracy of the aid for students with severe spelling difficulties remains unclear and must be investigated.

Self-efficacy for writing and written text quality of upper secondary students with and without reading difficulties

Introduction

Self-efficacy for writing (SEW) and reading ability are some of several factors that may be related to the quality of written text that students produce. The aim of the current study was (1) to explore the variation in SEW and written text quality in L1-Swedish and L2-English among upper secondary students with different reading profiles in L1 (typical reading vs. reading difficulties) and with different study backgrounds (SB1year or SB2years = one or two years of studies of Swedish and English, respectively), and in the next step (2) to explore if individual variations in L1-reading and SEW may explain variation in written text quality.

Methods

Participants were 100 upper secondary students (aged 17-18) with different reading profiles operationalized as typical reading and reading difficulties. Data consisted of screening for word recognition and reading comprehension, text quality results from argumentative L1- and L2-writing tasks, school information on study background in Swedish/English, and students' responses from an online survey about SEW.

Results

As to SEW results, an ANOVA revealed significant main effects for reading profile and study background in L1, but in L2 there was only a significant main effect for reading profile. Written text quality results indicated that there was a significant interaction effect between reading profile and study background in L1, indicating that the significant main effect for reading profile on written text quality was influenced by the group of students with reading difficulties and SB1year. There was a significant main effect for reading profile and study background on written text quality in L2. Students with reading difficulties and SB1year were the most vulnerable group, and they had the lowest scores in L1/L2 SEW and written text quality in L1 and L2. Multiple regression results indicated that word recognition and SEW contributed significantly to L1-text quality, and word recognition, reading comprehension, and SEW contributed significantly to L2-text quality. Thus, this study sheds light on the under-researched area of L1/L2 SEW and text quality of students with reading difficulties at the level of upper secondary school.

Discussion

Pedagogical implications are discussed and highlight the need for writing instruction across subjects in upper secondary school and for extra writing support/scaffolding for students with reading difficulties and shorter study background in the language subjects L1 (Swedish) and L2 (English).

Reading-to-Writing Mediation model of higher-order literacy

Introduction

Writing difficulties frequently manifest comorbidly with reading challenges, and reading is implicated in particular acts of writing, such as reviewing and editing. Despite what is known, however, there remain significant barriers to understanding the nature of reading-writing relations, as few studies are comprehensive in the number and types of literacy skills evaluated. This study consists of a secondary data analysis of two studies employing structural equation modeling (SEM) to evaluate relations among reading and writing components skills independently, using the Direct and Inferential Mediation Model (DIME) of reading comprehension and Not-so-Simple View of Writing (NSVW) as theoretical frameworks.

Methods

We examine relations between reading and writing components from these models with a sample of upper elementary students with/at-risk for learning disabilities (n = 405). Lower-order components included word reading, vocabulary, handwriting and spelling. Higher-order components included background knowledge, reading strategies, inferencing, planning, editing, and revision. The literacy outcomes were oral and silent reading fluency, reading comprehension, and writing quality and productivity. We systematically build a Reading-to-Writing Mediation (RWM) model by first merging the DIME and NSVW components in a direct effects model (Aim 1), expanding the joint model to include reading and writing fluency (Aim 2), evaluating indirect effects between DIME and NSVW component skills (Aim 3), and finally, evaluating indirect effects with reading and writing fluency (Aim 4).

Results

The findings suggest that higher order fluency and comprehension skills are differentially related to writing activities and products.

Discussion

The pattern of results helps elucidate the mechanisms of how various reading and writing skills transfer and relate. The results have implications for targeted and implicit instruction in multicomponent interventions and the use of screeners to identify areas of risk.

A Scoping Review on Movement, Neurobiology and Functional Deficits in Dyslexia: Suggestions for a Three-Fold Integrated Perspective

Developmental dyslexia is a common complex neurodevelopmental disorder. Many theories and models tried to explain its symptomatology and find ways to improve poor reading abilities. The aim of this scoping review is to summarize current findings and several approaches and theories, focusing on the interconnectedness between motion, emotion and cognition and their connection to dyslexia. Consequently, we present first a brief overview of the main theories and models regarding dyslexia and its proposed neural correlates, with a particular focus on cerebellar regions and their involvement in this disorder. After examining different types of intervention programs and remedial training, we highlight the effects of a specific structured sensorimotor intervention named Quadrato Motor Training (QMT). QMT utilizes several cognitive and motor functions known to be relevant in developmental dyslexia. We introduce its potential beneficial effects on reading skills, including working memory, coordination and attention. We sum its effects ranging from behavioral to functional, structural and neuroplastic, especially in relation to dyslexia. We report several recent studies that employed this training technique with dyslexic participants, discussing the specific features that distinguish it from other training within the specific framework of the Sphere Model of Consciousness. Finally, we advocate for a new perspective on developmental dyslexia integrating motion, emotion and cognition to fully encompass this complex disorder.

Phoneme Representation and Articulatory Impairment: Insights from Adults with Comorbid Motor Coordination Disorder and Dyslexia

Phonemic processing skills are impaired both in children and adults with dyslexia. Since phoneme representation development is based on articulatory gestures, it is likely that these gestures influence oral reading-related skills as assessed through phonemic awareness tasks. In our study, fifty-two young dyslexic adults, with and without motor impairment, and fifty-nine skilled readers performed reading, phonemic awareness, and articulatory tasks. The two dyslexic groups exhibited slower articulatory rates than skilled readers and the comorbid dyslexic group presenting with an additional difficulty in respiratory control (reduced speech proportion and increased pause duration). Two versions of the phoneme awareness task (PAT) with pseudoword strings were administered: a classical version under time pressure and a delayed version in which access to phonemic representations and articulatory programs was facilitated. The two groups with dyslexia were outperformed by the control group in both versions. Although the two groups with dyslexia performed equally well on the classical PAT, the comorbid group performed significantly less efficiently on the delayed PAT, suggesting an additional contribution of articulatory impairment in the task for this group. Overall, our results suggest that impaired phoneme representations in dyslexia may be explained, at least partially, by articulatory deficits affecting access to them.

Handwriting fluency, latency, and kinematic in Portuguese writing system: Pilot study with school children from 3rd to 5th grade

Studies have referred to the interaction between orthographic and motor aspects during the production of handwriting. However, studies with Brazilian Portuguese are still lacking. Hence, the aim of this study was to compare orthographic regularity, based on the Portuguese writing system, in high (HF) and low (LF) frequency words, in relation to latency and kinematic variables in students from the 3rd to the 5th grade of elementary school. This is a cross-sectional pilot study, with a convenience sample of 95 children participated in this study, from 3rd to 5th grade level attending a state elementary school. All were submitted to the following procedures of computerized evaluation of handwriting and submitted to the task of writing 15 HF and 15 LF words, selected according to the frequency criteria and classified according writing coding rule. Results indicated that for HF words, there was a decrease in writing and disfluencies production time, for all coding rules, from 3rd to 5th grade. However, for LF words, the more unpredictable orthographic affect production duration time, movement fluency, and students became more dependent on the use of gaze to check spelling aspects. This study revealed that lexical and sub-lexical activation affected motor production. For HF and LF words, lexical and sublexical process favored motor programming. However, for LF words, despite the maturation and school progression for the motor planes, there was an increase in latency time and in the need to search for word information, measured by the gaze variable for words with greater irregularity. This study has provided some evidence that linguistic variables such as orthographic regularity and word familiarity affect handwriting performance in Brazilian Portuguese written language.

Working Memory and Manual Dexterity in Dyslexic Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Dyslexic children have impairments in working memory and manual dexterity. Studies have shown that when cognitive development has deficits, motor development is often impaired, indicating a strong interconnection between both domains, and the possibility of interference with each other's proper functioning. Thus, a new literature review is necessary to understand which components of working memory and manual dexterity are affected in dyslexic children and the possible relationship between them. This review aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis to analyze both skills in dyslexic children. The protocol was carried out according to the criteria established by PRISMA being registered at PROSPERO under number CRD 42021238901. Six literature databases were searched to locate studies published between 2001 and 2021: EMBASE, ERIC, ISI Web of Science, PubMed, PsycINFO, and Scopus. 21 studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings suggest that dyslexic children have significantly poorer visuospatial and verbal working memory with more impairments in the phonological loop. No significant differences were found in manual dexterity.

Co-Occurrence of Reading and Writing Difficulties: The Application of the Interactive Dynamic Literacy Model

This article presents the application of the interactive dynamic literacy (IDL) model (Kim, 2020b) toward understanding difficulties in learning to read and write. According to the IDL model, reading and writing are part of communicative acts that draw on largely shared processes and skills as well as unique processes and skills. As such, reading and writing are dissociable but interdependent systems that have hierarchical, interactive, and dynamic relations. These key tenets of the IDL model are applied to the disruption of reading and writing development to explain co-occurrence of reading-writing difficulties using a single framework. The following hypotheses are presented: (a) co-occurrence between word reading and spelling and handwriting difficulties; (b) co-occurrence of dyslexia with written composition difficulties; (c) co-occurrence between reading comprehension and written composition difficulties; (d) co-occurrence of language difficulties with reading difficulties and writing difficulties; (e) co-occurrence of reading, writing, and language difficulties with weak domain-general skills or executive functions such as working memory and attentional control (including attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]); and (f) multiple pathways for reading and writing difficulties. Implications are discussed.

Trends in Dyslexia Research during the Period 1950 to 2020-Theories, Definitions, and Publications

INTRODUCTION

The focus of the present paper is on (1) how dyslexia research and hence definitions have developed during the period 1950-2020 and includes (2) a database search of scientific publications on dyslexia during the same period. The focus is on the definitions of dyslexia and the organization of the network search based on the causal four-level model by Morton and Frith.

METHOD

(1) The definitions are presented in accordance with a historic review of dyslexia research from 1950 to 2020 and based on (2) Google Scholar counts of publications on dyslexia, on defining dyslexia, on dyslexia at the four levels (symptomatic, cognitive, biological, environmental), and by areas (sensorimotor, comorbidity). Finally, a percentage calculation shows the relative development within each level and area by decennium (1950-1960, 1960-1970, 1970-1980, 1990-2000, 2002-2010, 2010-2020).

RESULTS

(1) Of the seven definitions presented, only the definition by the BDA 2007 included the four levels of the causal model. (2) The number of publications increased substantially over the period. However, relatively few publications have defined dyslexia. An increase in publications from 1950 to 2020 was seen across the four levels and two areas-however, with an alteration in the thematic focus over this time span.

SUMMARY

Defining dyslexia has still not reached a consensus. This uncertainty may explain why only one of the seven definitions proved satisfactory according to the four-level model. Along with the general increase in research, publications on dyslexia have increased accordingly during the period 1950 to 2020. Although the symptomatic level has played a dominant role over the whole period, thematic shifts have been seen over these 70 years. In particular, a substantial thematic shift was seen by the turn of the millennium. There has been a relative increase in the focus on literacy at the symptomatic level, on phonological awareness at the cognitive level, in gender at the biological level, and second language learning as comorbidities. However, increases in counts are not alone a valid indication of scientific progress. In particular, the lack of definitional criteria as a basis for participant and method selection should attract much more focus in future studies. The present study underlines the multifactorial nature of dyslexia, as evidenced by a substantial increase in the number of publications on the subject. It is a challenge for future research to continuously use and possibly redefine dyslexia definitions in line with such standards.

Text Reading Fluency and Text Reading Comprehension Do Not Rely on the Same Abilities in University Students With and Without Dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia is a specific learning condition characterized by severe and persistent difficulties in written word recognition, decoding and spelling that may impair both text reading fluency and text reading comprehension. Despite this, some adults with dyslexia successfully complete their university studies even though graduating from university involves intensive exposure to long and complex texts. This study examined the cognitive skills underlying both text reading comprehension and text reading fluency (TRF) in a sample of 54 university students with dyslexia and 63 university students without dyslexia, based on a set of tests adapted for an adult population, including listening comprehension, word reading, pseudoword reading (i.e., decoding), phonemic awareness, spelling, visual span, reading span, vocabulary, non-verbal reasoning, and general knowledge. The contribution of these skills to text reading fluency and text reading comprehension was examined using stepwise multiplicative linear regression analyses. As far as TRF is concerned, a regression model including word reading, pseudoword reading and spelling best fits the data, while a regression model including listening comprehension, general knowledge and vocabulary best fits the data obtained for text reading comprehension. Overall, these results are discussed in the light of the current literature on adults with dyslexia and both text reading fluency and text reading comprehension.

Automaticity and Executive Abilities in Developmental Dyslexia: A Theoretical Review

Cognitive difficulties are well documented in developmental dyslexia but they present a challenge to dyslexia theory. In this paper, the Model of the Control of Action is proposed as a theoretical explanation of how and why deficits in both automaticity and executive abilities are apparent in the cognitive profiles of dyslexia and how these deficits might relate to literacy difficulties. This theoretical perspective is used to consider evidence from different cognitive domains. The neuroanatomical underpinnings of automaticity and executive abilities are then discussed in relation to the understanding of dyslexia. Links between reading, writing, and executive function are considered. The reviewed evidence suggests that dyslexia theory should consider an interaction between procedural learned behaviour (automaticity) and higher-order (executive) abilities. The capacity to handle environmental interference, develop and engage adaptive strategies accordingly, and plan actions all require interactions between the cerebellum and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Difficulties in these areas might explain both impairments in the cumulative development of literacy skills in childhood and general task management in everyday life in adulthood. It is suggested that improved measures are required to assess this cerebellar–PFC interaction and to allow early identification of future literacy difficulties, allowing implementation of timely interventions and reasonable adjustments.

Evidence of Altered Functional Connectivity at Rest in the Writing Network of Children with Dyslexia

Aim. Handwriting abilities in children with dyslexia (DYS) are not well documented in the current literature, and the presence of graphomotor impairment in addition to spelling impairment in dyslexia is controversial. Using resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC), the present study aims to answer the following question: are there markers of graphomotor impairment at rest in DYS children? Method. The participants were children with DYS and typically developing (TD) children (n = 32) from French-speaking primary schools (M_age = 9.3 years). The behavioural evaluation consisted of spelling and handwriting measures. Participants underwent a resting-state fMRI scan. Results. Analyses of RSFC focused on a brain region responsible for graphomotor processes—the graphemic/motor frontal area (GMFA). The RSFC between the GMFA and all other voxels of the brain was measured. Whole-brain ANOVAs were run to compare RSFC in DYS and TD children. The results demonstrated reduced RSFC in DYS compared to TD between the GMFA and brain areas involved in both spelling processes and motor-related processes. Conclusions. For the first time, this study highlighted a disruption of the writing network in DYS. By identifying functional markers of both spelling and handwriting deficits at rest in young DYS participants, this study supports the presence of graphomotor impairment in dyslexia.

Expanding the Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Writing (DIEW): Reading-Writing Relations, and Dynamic Relations As a Function of Measurement/Dimensions of Written Composition

Within the context of the Direct and Indirect Effects model of Writing, we examined a dynamic relations hypothesis, which contends that the relations of component skills, including reading comprehension, to written composition vary as a function of dimensions of written composition. Specifically, we investigated (a) whether higher order cognitive skills (i.e., inference, perspective taking, and monitoring) are differentially related to three dimensions of written composition-writing quality, writing productivity, and correctness in writing; (b) whether reading comprehension is differentially related to the three dimensions of written composition after accounting for oral language, cognition, and transcription skills; and whether reading comprehension mediates the relations of discourse oral language and lexical literacy to the three dimensions of written composition; and (c) whether total effects of oral language, cognition, transcription, and reading comprehension vary for the three dimensions of written composition. Structural equation model results from 350 English-speaking second graders showed that higher order cognitive skills were differentially related to the three dimensions of written composition. Reading comprehension was related only to writing quality, but not to writing productivity or correctness in writing; and reading comprehension differentially mediated the relations of discourse oral language and lexical literacy to writing quality. Total effects of language, cognition, transcription, and reading comprehension varied largely for the three dimensions of written composition. These results support the dynamic relation hypothesis, role of reading in writing, and the importance of accounting for dimensions of written composition in a theoretical model of writing.

K-2 principal knowledge (not leadership) matters for dyslexia intervention

Kindergarten through second-grade elementary schools that best serve students with dyslexia have principals who are knowledgeable about dyslexia and understand the best practices for providing intervention for students with dyslexia. In this study, three styles of leadership were examined to understand the implication that leadership has on intervention for dyslexia: transformational, instructional, and integrated leadership. However, many students in elementary schools have difficulty learning to read despite good leadership by the principal, with 5-20% of students being diagnosed with dyslexia. While these students need phonetic, multisensory intervention to build necessary reading skills, this study found that many principals lack knowledge of this specialized instruction. The purpose of this research was to explore variables that determine the school-based level of appropriate intervention for students with dyslexia. A questionnaire assessing leadership skills, knowledge, and beliefs about dyslexia, preparation in reading disorders and/or dyslexia received from degree programs and professional development, and services provided to students with dyslexia was given to K-2 principals serving in schools across the United States. Results indicated that regardless of leadership style, principals who have greater knowledge and more correct beliefs about dyslexia provide more appropriate school-based services for students with dyslexia. Eight detailed K-2 principal/practitioner recommendations are included based upon this key finding.

Maladaptive compensation of right fusiform gyrus in developmental dyslexia: A hub-based white matter network analysis

Cognitive theories have been proposed to clarify the causes and symptoms of dyslexia. However, correlations between local network parameters of white matter connectivity and literacy skills remain poorly known. An unbiased hypothesis-free approach was adopted to examine the correlations between literacy symptoms (reading and spelling) and hub-based white matter networks' connectivity parameters [nodal degree fractional anisotropy (FA) values] of 90 brain regions based on Anatomical Atlas Labels (AAL) in a group of French children with dyslexia aged 9-14 years. Results revealed that the higher the right fusiform gyrus's (FFG) nodal degree FA values, the lower the reading accuracy for words and pseudowords in dyslexic children. The results indicate that the severity of word/pseudoword reading symptoms in dyslexia relates to a white matter network centered around the right FFG. The negative correlation between right FFG network connectivity and reading accuracy, in particular pseudoword reading accuracy, suggests that right FFG represents a maladaptive compensation towards a general orthography-to-phonology decoding ability in developmental dyslexia.

Semantics impacts response to phonics through spelling intervention in children with dyslexia

We examined the response to a phonics through spelling intervention in 52 children with dyslexia by analyzing their phonological, morphological, and orthographical spelling errors both before and after the intervention whereas their spelling errors before the intervention were compared with those of 105 typically developing spellers. A possible compensatory role of semantics on the intervention effects was also investigated. Results showed that before the intervention, children with dyslexia and the typically developing children both made most morphological errors, followed by orthographic and phonological errors. Within each category, children with dyslexia made more errors than the typically developing children, with differences being largest for phonological errors. Children with dyslexia with better developed semantic representations turned out to make less phonological, morphological, and orthographic errors compared with children with dyslexia with less developed semantic representations. The intervention for children with dyslexia led to a reduction of all error types, mostly of the orthographic errors. In addition, semantics was related to the decline in phonological, morphological, and orthographic spelling errors. This study implicates that semantic stimulation could benefit the spelling development of children at risk for or with dyslexia.

The Not-So-Simple View of Writing in Struggling Readers/Writers

Research suggests that executive function, motivation, transcription, and composition processes are implicated in the writing quality and productivity of children with and without learning difficulties. However, numerous components embedded within these constructs create both conceptual and empirical challenges to the study of written expression. These challenges are reflected in the writing research by way of poor delineation of constructs and insufficient distinction among domain general resources (e.g. working memory) versus processes related to the academic domain of writing (e.g. pre-planning), as well as among lower- (e.g. handwriting) and higher-order (e.g. editing) writing-specific processes. The current study utilizes the Not-so-Simple View of Writing (NSVW) as an organizing framework for examining the relations among multiple components, correlates, and attributes of writing in a sample of struggling readers/writers (n = 402) in grades 3-5. Data were collected on measures of (a) handwriting, spelling, planning, revision, and editing, derived from the Test of Oral Written Language (TOWL-4), (b) executive function derived from the NIH Examiner, and (c) motivation/self-efficacy derived from the Student Contextual Learning Scale. Structural equation modeling was utilized to test direct and indirect relations in the NSVW model. Results showed generally moderate correlations among observed/latent variables and found support for relations among writing-specific processes. Domain-general resources (executive function and motivation/self-efficacy) were related to spelling directly and indirectly to writing. Domain-specific processes (handwriting, spelling, planning, editing, and revision) were related to writing. The results have implications for explicit instruction of writing processes and for future research on empirical models.

Mode effect: An issue of perspective? Writing mode differences in a spelling assessment in German children with and without developmental dyslexia

Digital technology has an increasing influence on writing processes. In this context, the question arises whether changes in writing mode (i.e., handwriting vs. computer-keyboard typing) also require changes in writing assessments. However, data directly comparing writing mode influences in children with and without developmental writing deficits are scarce. This study investigated the influence of writing mode in German-speaking, typically developing children and children with developmental dyslexia (DD) from two different levels. Results showed on a general level that writing mode influenced overall spelling accuracy, writing time, and self-corrections comparably in children with and without DD. On a rule-specific level, outcomes for writing time and self-corrections substantiated these findings. However, as regards spelling accuracy, a mode effect was only apparent for capitalization, whereas other spelling rules were resistant to writing mode influences. Present findings suggest that a mode effect is present only for typing specific aspects (e.g., capitalization) rather than reflecting a general influence on orthographic principles (e.g., grapheme-phoneme assignment, morphologic principles). These mode-specific aspects seem to comparably affect the writing performance of typically developing children and children with DD. We recommend writing assessments to consider that different writing modes may influence individual spelling rules differently.

Effect of computer-based multisensory program on English reading skills of students with Dyslexia and reading difficulties

The study evaluated the effectiveness of a computer-based Multi-Sensory Program (MSP) on English reading skills as a second language of fourth-grade students with reading difficulties and Dyslexia in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Pretest-Posttest experimental design was used in this study. The analysis showed that average pretest score in both the experimental and control groups was almost the same and the average post-test score was much higher in the experimental group as compared to the control group. Moreover, results also reveal statistically significant difference in the students' mean scores between the experimental and control groups after the MSP intervention. The study has implications in the UAE and Arab countries and everywhere in the world for students who are learning English as a second language and facing reading difficulties. Besides, the modified MSP used in this study can be adopted and imitated to create a local version in the Arabic language in the Middle East and in other countries that are teaching Arabic as a second language.

Derivational Morphology Bridges Phonology and Orthography: Insights Into the Development of Word-Specific Spellings by Superior, Average, and Poor Spellers

Purpose Morphology, which is a bridge between phonology and orthography, plays an important role in the development of word-specific spellings. This study, which employed longitudinal sampling of typically developing students in Grades 3, 4, and 5, explored how the misspellings of words with derivational suffixes shed light on the interplay of phonological, orthographic, and morphological (POM) linguistic features as students learn to integrate POM features appropriately to generate correct spellings. Method Sixty typically developing Grade 3 students were tested using the Spelling subtest from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (Wechsler, 2001) and were divided into superior, average, and poor spellers. Students' spelling skill was then assessed using the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition annually for another 2 years. Misspelled derivations from these three testing sessions were analyzed for linguistic feature errors and error complexity/severity. Differences in the integration of POM features across spelling ability levels at Grades 3-5 were analyzed with Kruskal-Wallis analyses of variance. Results Longitudinal results demonstrated POM integration for the development of word-specific spellings involving derivational morphology was in its initial stages over Grades 3-5 and was influenced by spelling ability level. Information from a qualitative analysis revealed considerable variability in how students applied their POM knowledge to spell complex derivations. Conclusions Word-specific spellings draw on multiple linguistic codes-P, O, and M-and their interconnections. It involves more than an understanding of orthographic rules. Rather, accurate spelling develops through an increased understanding of the phoneme-grapheme relationships as facilitated by the identification of word parts (base + or - affixes) in written language. Educational and clinical implications are discussed.

Do children with dyslexia present a handwriting deficit? Impact of word orthographic and graphic complexity on handwriting and spelling performance

Several studies have demonstrated that children with dyslexia frequently show poor and slow handwriting skills. It is not clear whether these difficulties are a consequence of their spelling deficit or if they arise from graphomotor difficulties. The present study aims to test the hypothesis of the presence of handwriting difficulties in dyslexia, through the investigation of the impact of graphic and orthographic complexity of words on writing. Participants were all monolingual French-speaking children. Twenty-three children with dyslexia (DYS) were compared to two groups of typically developing children: 23 chronological-age (CA) matched children and 23 spelling-age (SA) matched children. They were assessed on a single-word dictation task of 40 words on a digital tablet. The target words varied in orthographic complexity and in graphic complexity (simple vs. difficult). This task was scored on spelling accuracy, handwriting quality and handwriting speed. General Linear Mixed Model analyses revealed no global differences between the three groups for handwriting quality. However, the DYS children were more impacted by the graphic complexity of words than both the CA and SA children. These findings support the idea that children with dyslexia struggle with the graphomotor aspects of writing and have potential implications for educational and clinical supports.

Safe and effective prescribing with dyslexia

BACKGROUND

The term 'dyslexia' refers to a condition that impacts upon reading and writing abilities whilst not altering intelligence. Individuals with dyslexia may have difficulties with the speed and accuracy and their reading and writing, amongst other issues. Dyslexia is not automatically considered a disability but is a protected characteristic under the UK Equality Act (2010), and therefore employers and educational institutions are required to provide 'reasonable adjustments' in order to allow individuals to reach their full potential. There is a lack of research on this issue, but what little there is suggests that doctors feel as though any support they received ended when they graduated from medical school.

MAIN BODY

A core distinction between medical school and medical practice is the requirement to prescribe medicines as registered medical practitioners. Junior doctors have to master this complex and potentially hazardous skill "on the job", with a perceived lack of support. Here, we open up a debate about the potential impact of dyslexia on prescribing, and the need to find supports that may be effective in enabling doctors with dyslexia prescribe medicines safely and effectively - and thus reach their full potential as medical practitioners and promote patient safety.

CONCLUSION

We argue that medical schools and hospitals could immediately provide dyslexia awareness training in both undergraduate and postgraduate settings. We discuss electronic prescribing systems, and conclude that research is required to identify effective supports for junior doctors with dyslexia.

The Effects of Planning and Handwriting Style on Quantity Measures in Secondary School Children’s Writing

The study aimed to evaluate the proposer, translator, editor, and transcriber process model of writing in the context of secondary school children. Eighty-three children completed written texts under conditions that facilitated the proposer and placed resource demands on the transcriber. It was found that the number of words, lexical richness, and the number of sentences were affected by transcription resource demands, while the number of sentences was increased when the proposer was facilitated. There were also by-gender interactions that indicated male writers and female writers completed the tasks to different product levels. The discussion proposes that future developments of the model take into account a more direct interaction between the transcriber and translation level processes when considering this age group.

A beginning exploration of text generation abilities in university students with a history of reading difficulties

There is a fundamental lack of understanding of how university students with a history of reading difficulties perform on various demanding literacy tasks. We compared the text generation skills, measured with timed summary writing and proofreading tasks, of university students with a history of reading difficulties to those of students with no such history. We further examined whether between-group differences in text generation skills remained after controlling for transcription skills (spelling and handwriting fluency), word reading, and reading comprehension. Forty-six university students with a history of reading difficulties were matched on age, gender, and non-verbal intelligence to 46 students without this history. We found that the students with a history of reading difficulties performed poorer on both measures of text generation than students without this history. When differences in transcription skills, word reading, and reading comprehension were controlled, we found that only differences in timed summary writing remained significant. These results suggest that students with a history of reading difficulties experience challenges with specific aspects of text generation that are beyond what one would expect from their difficulties with transcription and word reading. We suggest that, if not addressed, text generation deficits are likely to create obstacles for academic success.

Beyond the global motion deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia: A cross-sectional study of visual, cognitive, and socio-economic factors influencing reading ability in children

Although primarily conceptualized as a disorder of phonological awareness, developmental dyslexia is often associated with broader problems perceiving and attending to transient or rapidly-moving visual stimuli. However, the extent to which such visual deficits represent the cause or the consequence of dyslexia remains contentious, and very little research has examined the relative contributions of phonological, visual, and other variables to reading performance more broadly. We measured visual sensitivity to global motion (GM) and global form (GF), performance on various language and other cognitive tasks believed to be compromised in dyslexia (phonological awareness, processing speed, and working memory), together with a range of social and demographic variables often omitted in previous research, such as age, gender, non-verbal intelligence, and socio-economic status in an unselected sample (n = 132) of children aged 6-11.5 yrs from two different primary schools in Edinburgh, UK. We found that: (i) Mean GM sensitivity (but not GF) was significantly lower in poor readers (medium effect size); (ii) GM sensitivity accounted for only 3% of the variance in reading scores; (iii) GM sensitivity deficits were observed in only 16% of poor readers; (iv) the best predictors of reading performance were phonological awareness, non-verbal intelligence, and socio-economic status, suggesting the importance of controlling for these in future studies of vision and reading. These findings suggest that developmental dyslexia is unlikely to represent a single category of neurodevelopmental disorder underpinned by lower-level deficits in visual motion processing.

Automatic Correction of Arabic Dyslexic Text

This paper proposes an automatic correction system that detects and corrects dyslexic errors in Arabic text. The system uses a language model based on the Prediction by Partial Matching (PPM) text compression scheme that generates possible alternatives for each misspelled word. Furthermore, the generated candidate list is based on edit operations (insertion, deletion, substitution and transposition), and the correct alternative for each misspelled word is chosen on the basis of the compression codelength of the trigram. The system is compared with widely-used Arabic word processing software and the Farasa tool. The system provided good results compared with the other tools, with a recall of 43%, precision 89%, F1 58% and accuracy 81%.

Daily motor characteristics in children with developmental coordination disorder and in children with specific learning disorder

An association between learning disorders and coordination problems has been reported in several studies over the last few decades. In this study, we have investigated daily motor characteristics in children with a diagnosis of specific learning disorder (SLD) and compared them with those of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and those of typically developing controls. Ninety-six children aged 5 to 12 years were included: 29 with a diagnosis of SLD, 33 of DCD, and 34 controls. The Italian version of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ-Italian) was used to measure children's coordination in everyday functional activities. The mean DCDQ-Italian total score was significantly lower in both SLD and DCD groups as compared with controls. Regarding subscores, both clinical groups scored significantly lower than controls on "Fine motor/handwriting" skills and on "General coordination." The DCD group scored also significantly lower than controls on "Control during movement." Moreover, clinical groups differed from each other, with SLD children scoring significantly higher on "Control during movement" and "General coordination" subscores. SLD children diverged from typically developing children in some motor skills during ordinary activities, and although this discrepancy was not as severe as in DCD children, it could have an impact on self-esteem and sport inclusion.

Why Children With Dyslexia Struggle With Writing and How to Help Them

Purpose

Children with dyslexia often have related writing difficulties. In the simple view of writing model, high-quality writing depends on good transcription skills, working memory, and executive function-all of which can be difficult for children with dyslexia and result in poor spelling and low overall writing quality. In this article, we describe the challenges of children with dyslexia in terms of the simple view of writing and instructional strategies to increase spelling and overall writing quality in children with dyslexia.

Method

For spelling strategies, we conducted systematic searches across 2 databases for studies examining the effectiveness of spelling interventions for students with dyslexia as well as including studies from 2 meta-analyses. To locate other instructional practices to increase writing quality (e.g., handwriting and executive function), we examined recent meta-analyses of writing and supplemented that by conducting forward searches.

Results

Through the search, we found evidence of effective remedial and compensatory intervention strategies in spelling, transcription, executive function, and working memory. Some strategies included spelling using sound-spellings and morphemes and overall quality using text structure, sentence combining, and self-regulated strategy development.

Conclusions

Many students with dyslexia experience writing difficulty in multiple areas. However, their writing (and even reading) skills can improve with the instructional strategies identified in this article. We describe instructional procedures and provide links to resources throughout the article.

Elementary Grade Intervention Approaches to Treat Specific Learning Disabilities, Including Dyslexia

Purpose

The purpose of this narrative review of the literature is to provide a description of intensive interventions for elementary grade students with dyslexia, students with learning disabilities, and students with intensive reading and writing needs.

Method

First, we provide a brief overview of response to intervention. Second, we explain our theoretical framework for the review. Third, we describe evidence-based interventions, which are divided into predominantly reading or writing interventions. Fourth, we explain data-based individualization for these programs based on a taxonomy of intensity, and we provide an illustrative case study.

Conclusion

We conclude by describing a set of links to websites and technical assistance resources that may be helpful for speech-language pathologists, teachers, and other interventionists to stay current with this research base and to lead professional learning communities.

Improving Conceptual Knowledge of the Italian Writing System in Kindergarten: A Cluster Randomized Trial

This study assessed the efficacy of PASSI (Promoting the Achievement of Sound-Sign Integration), an intervention to improve children's conceptual knowledge of the Italian writing system in kindergarten, which is an emergent literacy predictor of reading and spelling acquisition focused on letter-speech sound integration. PASSI implements an embedded-explicit approach in which teachers target specific subskills (reflection on the graphic, symbolic and phonological aspect of written signs) and emphasize children's contextualized interactions with oral and written language. One hundred fifty-nine Italian children participated in this study. Six teachers (and their three respective classes) were randomly assigned to the experimental group, and six teachers were assigned to the control group. All children were tested on the invented spelling of words and numbers, knowledge of the alphabet, orthographic awareness, and drawing twice, before and after the intervention. Children's visual-motor integration skills were also assessed as a control variable. The data were analyzed through the complex samples general linear model (GLM) approach. The results confirmed the efficacy of PASSI in promoting children's conceptual knowledge of the writing system and related emergent literacy skills. Theoretical and educational implications of the results are presented and discussed.

Behavioral and brain evidence for language by ear, mouth, eye, and hand and motor skills in literacy learning

Two studies were conducted of students with and without persisting Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs-WL) in Grades 4 to 9 (M = 11 years, 11 months) that supported the hypotheses that CELF 4 parent ratings for listening (language by ear), speaking (language by mouth), reading (language by eye), and writing (language by hand) were correlated with both (a) normed, standardized behavioral measures of listening, speaking, reading, and writing achievement (Study 1, 94 boys and 61 girls); and (b) fMRI connectivity or DTI white matter integrity involving brain regions for primary motor functions or motor planning and control, or motor timing in a subsample of right handers who did not wear metal (Study 2, 28 boys and 16 girls). Results of these assessment studies, which have implications for planning instruction for three SLDs-WL (dysgraphia, dyslexia, and oral and written language learning disability [OWL LD]), show that more than multisensory instruction is relevant. Language by ear, by mouth, by eye, and by hand, as well as motor planning, control, and output skills and motor timing should also be considered. Research is also reviewed that supports other processes beyond multisensory input alone that should also be considered for students with SLDs-WL.

Programa fonoaudiológico em compreensão leitora e ortografia: efeitos na ortografia em disléxicos

RESUMO Objetivo Elaborar um Programa Fonoaudiológico em Compreensão Leitora e Ortografia e verificar seus efeitos na compreensão leitora e ortografia de escolares com Dislexia do Desenvolvimento. Método Participaram desta pesquisa onze indivíduos com diagnóstico de Dislexia do Desenvolvimento, com idades entre 9 e 11 anos, sendo oito meninos. Todos foram submetidos ao Programa Fonoaudiológico em Compreensão Leitora e Ortografia, composto por 16 sessões semanais individuais. Em cada sessão, foram desenvolvidas tarefas de compreensão leitora de textos e de ortografia. Antes do início e ao término do Programa, os participantes realizaram uma avaliação específica (pré e pós-teste). Resultados Os indivíduos apresentaram dificuldade na compreensão de textos, porém a técnica de Cloze foi um instrumento útil para a remediação da compreensão leitora, havendo melhora significativa no desempenho destes no pós-teste. Os disléxicos demonstraram um desempenho inferior à escolaridade em ortografia. Após o Programa, o desempenho deles evoluiu, porém permaneceu abaixo do esperado, ocorrendo o mesmo perfil de erros no pré e no pós-teste, com erros de ortografia natural e ortografia arbitrária. Conclusão O Programa Fonoaudiológico em Compreensão Leitora e Ortografia produz efeitos positivos na compreensão leitora, na ortografia e na motivação para a leitura e escrita dos participantes. Este estudo apresenta uma contribuição inédita, ao propor a estimulação conjunta da leitura e da escrita, por meio de um programa de fácil aplicabilidade e análise, em indivíduos com Dislexia do Desenvolvimento.

Effective Instruction for Persisting Dyslexia in Upper Grades: Adding Hope Stories and Computer Coding to Explicit Literacy Instruction

Children in grades 4 to 6 (N=14) who despite early intervention had persisting dyslexia (impaired word reading and spelling) were assessed before and after computerized reading and writing instruction aimed at subword, word, and syntax skills shown in four prior studies to be effective for treating dyslexia. During the 12 two-hour sessions once a week after school they first completed HAWK Letters in Motion© for manuscript and cursive handwriting, HAWK Words in Motion© for phonological, orthographic, and morphological coding for word reading and spelling, and HAWK Minds in Motion© for sentence reading comprehension and written sentence composing. A reading comprehension activity in which sentences were presented one word at a time or one added word at a time was introduced. Next, to instill hope they could overcome their struggles with reading and spelling, they read and discussed stories about struggles of Buckminister Fuller who overcame early disabilities to make important contributions to society. Finally, they engaged in the new Kokopelli's World (KW)©, blocks-based online lessons, to learn computer coding in introductory programming by creating stories in sentence blocks (Tanimoto and Thompson 2016). Participants improved significantly in hallmark word decoding and spelling deficits of dyslexia, three syntax skills (oral construction, listening comprehension, and written composing), reading comprehension (with decoding as covariate), handwriting, orthographic and morphological coding, orthographic loop, and inhibition (focused attention). They answered more reading comprehension questions correctly when they had read sentences presented one word at a time (eliminating both regressions out and regressions in during saccades) than when presented one added word at a time (eliminating only regressions out during saccades). Indicators of improved self-efficacy that they could learn to read and write were observed. Reminders to pay attention and stay on task needed before adding computer coding were not needed after computer coding was added.

Brain's functional network clustering coefficient changes in response to instruction (RTI) in students with and without reading disabilities: Multi-leveled reading brain's RTI

In students in grades 4 to 9 (22 males, 20 females), two reading disability groups-dyslexia (n = 20) or oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (n = 6)-were compared to each other and two kinds of control groups-typical readers (n = 6) or dysgraphia (n = 10) on word reading/spelling skills and fMRI imaging before and after completing 18 computerized reading lessons. Mixed ANOVAs showed significant time effects on repeated measures within participants and between groups effects on three behavioral markers of reading disabilities-word reading/spelling: All groups improved on the three behavioral measures, but those without disabilities remained higher than those with reading disabilities. On fMRI reading tasks, analyzed for graph theory derived clustering coefficients within a neural network involved in cognitive control functions, on a word level task the time × group interaction was significant in right medial cingulate; on a syntax level task the time × group interaction was significant in left superior frontal and left inferior frontal gyri; and on a multi-sentence text level task the time × group interaction was significant in right middle frontal gyrus. Three white matter-gray matter correlations became significant only after reading instruction: axial diffusivity in left superior frontal region with right inferior frontal gyrus during word reading judgments; mean diffusivity in left superior corona radiata with left middle frontal gyrus during sentence reading judgments; and mean diffusivity in left anterior corona radiata with right middle frontal gyrus during multi-sentence reading judgments. Significance of results for behavioral and brain response to reading instruction (RTI) is discussed.

Reading and Writing Skills in Children With Specific Learning Disabilities With and Without Developmental Coordination Disorder

This pilot study is to investigate the influence of a developmental coordination disorder (DCD) comorbidity in a group of children with learning disability (LD). Reading and writing were assessed to investigate if the coexistence of a motor impairment can worsen writing quality, speed, and reading accuracy. A sample of 33 LD children (aged 7-11 years) was divided in two subgroups, on the base of their scores on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children: LD-only (n = 14) and LD with a comorbidity for DCD (LD-DCD, n = 19). No differences were found in handwriting speed, but significant differences were found in handwriting quality: LD-DCD children showed a worst performance. Reading words and nonwords accuracy was more impaired in LD-only children than in LD-DCD children. Group differences suggest a poorer phonological decoding of the LD-only sample, whereas worst cursive handwriting legibility scores are typical of the motor-impaired subgroup.

Dyslexia as a multi-deficit disorder: Working memory and auditory temporal processing

Dyslexia is difficulty in acquiring reading skills despite adequate intelligence and sufficient reading opportunities. Its origin is still under debate. Studies usually focus on a singular cause for dyslexia; however, some researchers argue that dyslexia reflects multiple deficits. Two of the abilities under investigation in dyslexia are working memory (WM) and auditory temporal processing (ATP). In order to better evaluate the relative roles of WM and ATP in dyslexia, in the present study, we tested the contribution of WM and ATP to different types of reading performance and phonological awareness in dyslexia, using a multidimensional approach. Seventy-eight adults with dyslexia and 23 normal-reading adults performed WM and ATP tasks, as well as reading and phonological awareness tests. Readers with dyslexia showed poorer performance on all tests. Both WM and ATP were significant predictors of reading performance and phonological awareness among participants with dyslexia. Dividing participants with dyslexia according to their performance level on WM and ATP tasks revealed group differences in reading and phonological awareness tests. Both WM and ATP contribute to dyslexia, and varying levels of difficulties in both of these abilities are observed among this population. This is strong evidence in favor of the multi-deficit approach in dyslexia, and suggests that researchers should consider this approach in future studies of dyslexia.

Online Writing Processes in Translating Cognition into Language and Transcribing Written Language by Stylus and Keyboard in Upper Elementary and Middle School Students With Persisting Dysgraphia or Dyslexia

Participants in this study completed an on-line experiment in which they wrote essays by stylus or keyboard. Three translation measures (length of language burst, length of pauses, and rate of pausing) and four transcription measures (total words, total time, words/minute, and percent spelling errors) for composition were analyzed for two research aims. Research Aim 1 addressed whether upper elementary and middle school students with carefully diagnosed transcription disabilities (dysgraphia with impaired handwriting, n=18, or dyslexia with impaired spelling, n=20) showed significant differences from pretest to posttest, across modes of transcription (stylus or keyboard), and between diagnostic groups. Results showed significant (a) change after intervention (18 computerized lessons with learning activities in letter formation/selection, spelling, and composing) in length of pauses, total time, and words per minute; (b) mode effects (fewer words and less time by stylus; fewer pauses per minute by keyboard); and (c) interactions with diagnostic group in response to intervention on some measures. Research Aim 2 addressed whether following intervention each of the diagnostic groups performed comparably to a typical control group (n=15) in the same on-line experiment. Results showed (a) comparable performance of the dysgraphia and control groups on all keyboarding tasks but differences on two stylus measures; and (b) lack of comparable performance of the dyslexia and control groups on two stylus measures (total words and percent spelling errors) and the four keyboarding tasks related to transcription. Implications for assistive technology and writing instruction for dysgraphia and dyslexia are discussed.