Pravastatin chitosan nanogels-loaded erythrocytes as a new delivery strategy for targeting liver cancer

Comparison of effects of different anesthesia methods on immune function and liver function of liver cancer patients after operation

Liver cancer, one of the most common malignant tumors, has seriously threatened people's physical and mental health. The paper was conducted to investigate the functions of two different anesthesia methods on Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) and T lymphocyte subsets in patients undergoing liver cancer resection, and to explore the liver function impact of patients undergoing liver cancer surgery. 80 liver cancer patients were split into propofol intravenous anesthesia group and sevoflurane inhalation anesthesia group. The patient's operation-related indicators and changes in TNF-α, CRP and T lymphocyte subsets before anesthesia, after anesthesia, 1 day after anesthesia, and 3 days after anesthesia were calculated. The levels of TNF-α and CRP in the two groups after operation were clearly higher than those before anesthesia, but there was no obvious difference between the two groups. After operation, the TNF-α of the propofol intravenous anesthesia group was lower than the sevoflurane inhalation anesthesia group. The CD3+, CD4+ and CD4+/CD8+ levels in both groups recovered to the pre-anaesthesia level 3 days after the operation. The levels of ALT, AST, ALB and TBIL returned to normal at d4 in both propofol intravenous anesthesia and sevoflurane inhalation anesthesia groups. Compared with evoflurane inhalation anesthesia for patients with liver cancer, intravenous anesthesia with propofol can reduce the body's inflammatory response to a certain extent, has weak inhibitory effect on T lymphocyte immune function, and a smaller effect on liver function.

RBC-hitchhiking PLGA nanoparticles loading β-glucan as a delivery system to enhance in vitro and in vivo immune responses in mice

Red blood cells (RBCs) naturally trap some bacterial pathogens in the circulation and kill them by oxidative stress. Following neutralization, the bacteria are presented to antigen-presenting cells in the spleen by the RBCs. This ability of RBCs has been harnessed to develop a system where they play a crucial role in enhancing the immune response, offering a novel approach to enhance the body's immunity. In this work, a conjugate, G-OVA, was formed by connecting β-glucan and OVA through a disulfide bond. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) was then employed to encapsulate G-OVA, yielding G-OVA-PLGA. Finally, the nanoparticles were adsorbed onto RBCs to develop G-OVA-PLGA@RBC. The results demonstrated that the delivery of nanoparticles by RBCs enhanced the antibody response to antigens both in vitro and in vivo. The objective of this study was to investigate the increased immune activity of G-OVA-PLGA nanoparticles facilitated by RBCs transportation and to elucidate some of its underlying mechanisms. These findings are anticipated to contribute valuable insights for the development of efficient and safe immune enhancers.

Synthesis, characterization and stability of crosslinked chitosan-maltodextrin pH-sensitive nanogels

Polysaccharide-based nanogels offer a wide range of chemical compositions and are of great interest due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and their ability to display pH, temperature, or enzymatic response. In this work, we synthesized monodisperse and tunable pH-sensitive nanogels by crosslinking, through reductive amination, chitosan and partially oxidized maltodextrins, by keeping the concentration of chitosan close to its overlap concentration, i.e. in the dilute and semi-dilute regime. The chitosan/maltodextrin nanogels presented sizes ranging from 63 ± 9 to 279 ± 16 nm, showed quasi-spherical and cauliflower-like morphology, reached a ζ-potential of +36 ± 2 mV and maintained a colloidal stability for up to 7 weeks. It was found that the size and surface charge of nanogels depended both on the oxidation degree of maltodextrins and chitosan concentration, as well as on its degree of acetylation and protonation, the latter tuned by pH. The pH-responsiveness of the nanogels was evidenced by an increased size, owed to swelling, and ζ-potential when pH was lowered. Finally, maltodextrin-chitosan biocompatible nanogels were assessed by cell viability assay performed using the HEK293T cell line.

Chitosan-enclosed SLN improved SV-induced hepatocellular cell carcinoma death by modulation of IQGAP gene expression, JNK, and HDAC activities

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a global life-threatening problem and therapeutic interventions are still encountered. IQGAP genes are involved in HCC oncogenesis. The modulatory effect of statins on the expression of IQGAP genes is still unclear. This study aims to study the effect of free SV and chitosan (CS) decorated simvastatin (SV) loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (C-SV-SLNs) on HCC mortality.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Plain, SV-SLN, and C-SV- SLN were prepared and characterized in terms of particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), and polydispersity index (PDI). The biosafety of different SLN was investigated using fresh erythrocytes, moreover, cytotoxicity was investigated using HepG2 cell lines. The effect of SLNs on IQGAPs gene expression as well as JNK, HDAC6, and HDAC8 activity was investigated using PCR and MOE-docking. The current results displayed that SV-SLNs have nanosized, negative ZP and are homogenous, CS decoration shifts the ZP of SLN into cationic ZP. Furthermore, all SLNs exhibited desirable biosafety in terms of no deleterious effect on erythrocyte integrity. SV solution and SV-SLN significantly increase the mortality of HepG2 compared to undertreated cells, however, the effect of SV-SLN is more pronounced compared to free SV. Remarkably, C-SV-SLN elicits high HepG2 cell mortality compared to free SV and SV-SLN. The treatment of HepG2 cells with SV solution, SV-SLN, or C-SV-SLN significantly upregulates the IQGAP2 gene with repression of IQGAP1 and IQGAP3 genes. MOE-docking studies revealed both SV and tenivastatin exhibit interactions with the active sites of JNK, HDAC6, and HDAC8. Moreover, tenivastatin exhibited greater interactions with magnesium and zinc compared to SV.

CONCLUSIONS

This research provides novel insights into the therapeutic potential of SV, SV-SLN and C-SV-SLNs in HCC treatment, modulating critical signaling cascades involving IQGAPs, JNK, and HDAC. The development of C-SV-SLNs presents a promising strategy for effective HCC therapy.

An Investigation into the Effects of Processing Factors on the Properties and Scaling-Up Potential of Propranolol-Loaded Chitosan Nanogels

Chitosan-triphosphate (TPP) nanogels are widely studied drug delivery carrier systems, typically prepared via a simple mixing process. However, the effects of the processing factors on nanogel production have not been extensively explored, despite the importance of understanding and standardising such factors to allow upscaling and commercial usage. This study aims to systematically evaluate the effects of various fabrication and processing factors on the properties of nanogels using a Design of Experiment approach. Hydrodynamic size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency were determined as the dependent factors. The temperature, stirring rate, chitosan grade, crosslinker choice, and the interaction term between temperature and chitosan grade were found to have a significant effect on the particle size, whereas the effect of temperature and the addition rate of crosslinker on the PDI was also noteworthy. Moreover, the addition rate of the crosslinker and the volume of the reaction vessel were found to impact the encapsulation efficiency. The zeta potential of the nanogels was found to be governed by the chitosan grade. The optimal fabrication conditions for the development of medium molecular weight chitosan and TPP nanogels included the following: the addition rate for TPP solution was set at 2 mL/min, while the solution was then stirred at a temperature of 50 °C and a stirring speed of 600 rpm. The volume of the glass vial used was 28 mL, while the stirrer size was 20 mm. The second aim of the study was to evaluate the potential for scaling up the nanogels. Size and PDI were found to increase from 128 nm to 151 nm and from 0.232 to 0.267, respectively, when the volume of the reaction mixture was increased from 4 to 20 mL and other processing factors were kept unchanged. These results indicate that caution is required when scaling up as the nanogel properties may be significantly altered with an increasing production scale.

Intelligent berberine-loaded erythrocytes attenuated inflammatory cytokine productions in macrophages

Erythrocytes are impressive tools for drug delivery, especially to macrophages. Therefore, berberine was loaded into erythrocytes using both hypotonic pre-swelling and endocytosis methods to target macrophages. Physicochemical and kinetic parameters of the resulting carrier cells, such as drug loading/release kinetics, osmotic fragility, and hematological indices, were determined. Drug loading was optimized for the study using Taguchi experimental design and lab experiments. Loaded erythrocytes were targeted to macrophages using ZnCl2 and bis-sulfosuccinimidyl-suberate, and targeting was evaluated using flow cytometry and Wright-Giemsa staining. Differentiated macrophages were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, and the inflammatory profiles of macrophages were evaluated using ELISA, western blotting, and real-time PCR. Findings indicated that the endocytosis method is preferred due to its low impact on the erythrocyte's structural integrity. Maximum loading achieved (1386.68 ± 22.43 μg/ml) at 1500 μg/ml berberine treatment at 37 °C for 2 h. Berberine successfully inhibited NF-κB translation in macrophages, and inflammatory response markers such as IL-1β, IL-8, IL-23, and TNF-α were decreased by approximately ninefold, sixfold, twofold, eightfold, and twofold, respectively, compared to the LPS-treated macrophages. It was concluded that berberine-loaded erythrocytes can effectively target macrophages and modulate the inflammatory response.

Targeting metabolic reprogramming in hepatocellular carcinoma to overcome therapeutic resistance: A comprehensive review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a heavy burden on human health with high morbidity and mortality rates. Systematic therapy is crucial for advanced and mid-term HCC, but faces a significant challenge from therapeutic resistance, weakening drug effectiveness. Metabolic reprogramming has gained attention as a key contributor to therapeutic resistance. Cells change their metabolism to meet energy demands, adapt to growth needs, or resist environmental pressures. Understanding key enzyme expression patterns and metabolic pathway interactions is vital to comprehend HCC occurrence, development, and treatment resistance. Exploring metabolic enzyme reprogramming and pathways is essential to identify breakthrough points for HCC treatment. Targeting metabolic enzymes with inhibitors is key to addressing these points. Inhibitors, combined with systemic therapeutic drugs, can alleviate resistance, prolong overall survival for advanced HCC, and offer mid-term HCC patients a chance for radical resection. Advances in metabolic research methods, from genomics to metabolomics and cells to organoids, help build the HCC metabolic reprogramming network. Recent progress in biomaterials and nanotechnology impacts drug targeting and effectiveness, providing new solutions for systemic therapeutic drug resistance. This review focuses on metabolic enzyme changes, pathway interactions, enzyme inhibitors, research methods, and drug delivery targeting metabolic reprogramming, offering valuable references for metabolic approaches to HCC treatment.

Chitosan and Cyclodextrins-Versatile Materials Used to Create Drug Delivery Systems for Gastrointestinal Cancers

Gastrointestinal cancers are characterized by a frequent incidence, a high number of associated deaths, and a tremendous burden on the medical system and patients worldwide. As conventional chemotherapeutic drugs face numerous limitations, researchers started to investigate better alternatives for extending drug efficacy and limiting adverse effects. A remarkably increasing interest has been addressed to chitosan and cyclodextrins, two highly versatile natural carbohydrate materials endowed with unique physicochemical properties. In this respect, numerous studies reported on fabricating various chitosan and cyclodextrin-based formulations that enabled prolonged circulation times, improved cellular internalization of carried drugs, preferential uptake by the targeted cells, reduced side effects, enhanced apoptosis rates, and increased tumor suppression rates. Therefore, this paper aims to briefly present the advantageous properties of these oligo- and polysaccharides for designing drug delivery systems, further focusing the discussion on nanocarrier systems based on chitosan/cyclodextrins for treating different gastrointestinal cancers. Specifically, there are reviewed studies describing promising solutions for colorectal, liver, gastric, pancreatic, and other types of cancers of the digestive system towards creating an updated framework of what concerns anticancer chitosan/cyclodextrin-based drug delivery systems.

Synergistic chemotherapy and phototherapy based on red blood cell biomimetic nanomaterials

Novel drug delivery systems (DDSs) have become the mainstay of research in targeted cancer therapy. By combining different therapeutic strategies, potential DDSs and synergistic treatment approaches are needed to effectively deal with evolving drug resistance and the adverse effects of cancer. Nowadays, developing and optimizing human cell-based DDSs has become a new research strategy. Among them, red blood cells can be used as DDSs as they significantly enhance the pharmacokinetics of the transported drug cargo. Phototherapy, as a novel adjuvant in cancer treatment, can be divided into photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy. Phototherapy using erythropoietic nanocarriers to mimic the unique properties of erythrocytes and overcome the limitations of existing DDSs shows excellent prospects in clinical settings. This review provides an overview of the development of photosensitizers and research on bio-nano-delivery systems based on erythrocytes and erythrocyte membranes that are used in achieving synergistic outcomes during phototherapy/chemotherapy.

Red Blood Cell Inspired Strategies for Drug Delivery: Emerging Concepts and New Advances

In the past five decades, red blood cells (RBCs) have been extensively explored as drug delivery systems due to their distinguishing potential in modulating the pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamics, and biological activity of carried payloads. The extensive interests in RBC-mediated drug delivery technologies are in part derived from RBCs' unique biological features such as long circulation time, wide access to many tissues in the body, and low immunogenicity. Owing to these outstanding properties, a large body of efforts have led to the development of various RBC-inspired strategies to enable precise drug delivery with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reduced off-target toxicity. In this review, we discuss emerging concepts and new advances in such RBC-inspired strategies, including native RBCs, ghost RBCs, RBC-mimetic nanoparticles, and RBC-derived extracellular vesicles, for drug delivery.

Clinical progress and advanced research of red blood cells based drug delivery system

Red blood cells (RBCs) are biocompatible carriers that can be employed to deliver different bioactive substances. In the past few decades, many strategies have been developed to encapsulate or attach drugs to RBCs. Osmotic-based encapsulation methods have been industrialized recently, and some encapsulated RBC formulations have reached the clinical stage for treating tumors and neurological diseases. Inspired by the intrinsic properties of intact RBCs, some advanced delivery strategies have also been proposed. These delivery systems combine RBCs with other novel systems to further exploit and expand the application of RBCs. This review summarizes the clinical progress of drugs encapsulated into intact RBCs, focusing on the loading and clinical trials. It also introduces the latest advanced research based on developing prospects and limitations of intact RBCs drug delivery system (DDS), hoping to provide a reference for related research fields and further application potential of intact RBCs based drug delivery system.

Recent advances in bionanomaterials for liver cancer diagnosis and treatment

According to the World Health Organization, liver cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer associated with death worldwide. It demands effective treatment and diagnostic strategies to hinder its recurrence, complexities, aggressive metastasis and late diagnosis. With recent progress in nanotechnology, several nanoparticle-based diagnostic and therapeutic modalities have entered into clinical trials. With further developments in nanoparticle mediated liver cancer diagnosis and treatment, the approach holds promise for improved clinical liver cancer management. In this review, we discuss the key advances in nanoparticles that have potential for liver cancer diagnosis and treatment. We also discuss the potential of nanoparticles to overcome the limitations of existing therapeutic modalities.

Chitosan-bovine serum albumin-Carbopol 940 nanogels for mupirocin dermal delivery: ex-vivo permeation and evaluation of cellular binding capacity via radiolabeling

The goal of this study was to develop and examine the nanogel-based topical delivery system of mupirocin. Nanogels were prepared with chitosan and bovine serum albumin by ionic gelation and Carbopol 940 was added to improve the gelling/adhesive properties. Detailed characterization studies were performed and the cellular binding capacity of radiolabeled nanogels was investigated on CCD-1070Sk cell lines. Results indicate the successful formation of nanogels with particle size and zeta potential ranged between 341.920-603.320 nm and 13.120-24.300 mV, respectively. The mechanical and rheological studies proved pseudoplastic and strong elastic gel behavior (G' > G''). Mupirocin was successfully entrapped into nanogels with a ratio of more than 95% and the loaded drug was slowly released up to 93.89 ± 3.07% within 24 h. The ex vivo penetration and permeation percentages of mupirocin were very low (1.172 ± 0.202% and 0.161 ± 0.136%) indicating the suitability of nanogels for dermal use against superficial skin infections. The microbiological studies pointed out the effectiveness of nanogels against Staphylococcus aureus strains. Nanogels did not show toxicity signs and the cell binding capacity of radiolabeled formulations was found to be higher than [^99mTc]NaTcO₄ to CCD-1070Sk cell line. Overall, mupirocin nanogels might be considered as a potential and safe topical treatment option for bacterial skin infections.

Nucleic Acid Delivery with Red-Blood-Cell-Based Carriers

Gene therapy has the potential to become a staple of 21st-century medicine. However, to overcome the limitations of existing gene-delivery therapies, that is, poor stability and inefficient and delivery and accumulation of nucleic acids (NAs), safe drug-delivery systems (DDSs) allowing the prolonged circulation and expression of the administered genes in vivo are needed. In this review article, the development of DDSs over the past 70 years is briefly described. Since synthetic DDSs can be recognized and eliminated as foreign substances by the immune system, new approaches must be found. Using the body's own cells as DDSs is a unique and exciting strategy and can be used in a completely new way to overcome the critical limitations of existing drug-delivery approaches. Among the different circulatory cells, red blood cells (RBCs) are the most abundant and thus can be isolated in sufficiently large quantities to decrease the complexity and cost of the treatment compared to other cell-based carriers. Therefore, in the second part, this article describes 70 years of research on the development of RBCs as DDSs, covering the most important RBC properties and loading methods. In the third part, it focuses on RBCs as the NA delivery system with advantages and drawbacks discussed to decide whether they are suitable for NA delivery in vivo.

Developed simvastatin chitosan nanoparticles co-crosslinked with tripolyphosphate and chondroitin sulfate for ASGPR-mediated targeted HCC delivery with enhanced oral bioavailability

Simvastatin (SV) repurposing has emerged as an alternative approach for the treatment of cancer. In this study, SV chitosan nanoparticles co-crosslinked with tripolyphosphate and chondroitin sulfate (SVCSChSNPs) were developed in order to maximize SV therapeutic efficiency. The hepatic targeting was realized using N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues of ChS, which can be identified by the ASGPR receptors specifically expressed in hepatocytes. SV was repurposed as an anticancer agent against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). NPs were fabricated by the ionic gelation method, and the formulation variables (CS concentration, CS:ChS ratio, and CS solution pH) were optimized using a three-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design. The optimized NPs were investigated for particle size, size distribution, zeta potential, morphology, in vitro cytotoxicity, apoptotic effects against human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells, and detection of intracellular localization. The NPs were further evaluated for in vitro release behavior of SV and pharmacokinetics using Wister albino rats. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging showed a spherical shape with regular surface NPs of < 100 nm diameter. In vitro cytotoxicity testing showed that the SVCSChSNPs exhibited greater inhibition of proliferation in HepG2 cells and high cellular uptake through ASGPR-mediated endocytosis. The in vitro dissolution profile was 2.1-fold greater than that of pure SV suspension. Furthermore, in vivo oral pharmacokinetics revealed that the obtained NPs enhanced the bioavailability of SV by up to 2- and 1.6-fold for SV and SVA, respectively, compared to the pure SV suspension. These findings demonstrated that hepatic-targeted CSChSNPs delivering SV could potentially serve as a promising platform for HCC and other liver-related diseases.

Engineering of Exosomes: Steps Towards Green Production of Drug Delivery System

Targeting of therapeutic agents to their specific site of action not only increases the treatment efficacy, but also reduces systemic toxicity. Therefore, various drug delivery systems (DDSs) have been developed to achieve this target. However, most of those DDSs have several issues regarding biocompatibility and environmental hazard. In contrast to the synthetic DDSs, exosome-based natural carriers are biocompatible, biodegradable and safe for the environment. Since exosomes play a role in intercellular communication, they have been widely utilized as carriers for different therapeutic agents. This article was aimed to provide an overview of exosomes as an environment-friendly DDS in terms of engineering, isolation, characterization, application and limitation.

Research Progress in Bioinspired Drug Delivery Systems

INTRODUCTION

To tackle challenges associated with traditional drug carriers, investigators have explored cells, cellular membrane, and macromolecular components including proteins and exosomes for the fabrication of delivery vehicles, owing to their excellent biocompatibility, lower toxicity, lower immunogenicity and similarities with the host. Biomacromolecule- and biomimetic nanoparticle (NP)-based drug/gene carriers are drawing immense attention, and biomimetic drug delivery systems (BDDSs) have been conceived and constructed.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on BDDS based on mammalian cells, including blood cells, cancer cells, adult stem cells, endogenous proteins, pathogens and extracellular vesicles (EVs).

EXPERT OPINION

Compared with traditional drug delivery systems (DDSs), BDDSs are based on biological nanocarriers, exhibiting superior biocompatibility, fewer side effects, natural targeting, and diverse modifications. In addition to directly employing natural biomaterials such as cells, proteins, pathogens and EVs as carriers, BDDSs offer these advantages by mimicking the structure of natural nanocarriers through bioengineering technologies. Furthermore, BDDSs demonstrate fewer limitations and irregularities than natural materials and can overcome several shortcomings associated with natural carriers. Although research remains ongoing to resolve these limitations, it is anticipated that BDDSs possess the potential to overcome challenges associated with traditional DDS, with a promising future in the treatment of human diseases.

Erythrocytes as Carriers: From Drug Delivery to Biosensors

Drug delivery using natural biological carriers, especially erythrocytes, is a rapidly developing field. Such erythrocytes can act as carriers that prolong the drug's action due to its gradual release from the carrier; as bioreactors with encapsulated enzymes performing the necessary reactions, while remaining inaccessible to the immune system and plasma proteases; or as a tool for targeted drug delivery to target organs, primarily to cells of the reticuloendothelial system, liver and spleen. To date, erythrocytes have been studied as carriers for a wide range of drugs, such as enzymes, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory, antiviral drugs, etc., and for diagnostic purposes (e.g. magnetic resonance imaging). The review focuses only on drugs loaded inside erythrocytes, defines the main lines of research for erythrocytes with bioactive substances, as well as the advantages and limitations of their application. Particular attention is paid to in vivo studies, opening-up the potential for the clinical use of drugs encapsulated into erythrocytes.

Application of nanotechnology to improve the therapeutic benefits of statins

Hyperlipidemia is defined as an elevated level of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood and is considered to be a significant risk factor for accelerating the process of atherosclerosis and, consequently, cardiovascular disease. The level of cholesterol, especially low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), is commonly elevated in hyperlipidemia and represents the primary therapeutic target. Statins are a group of drugs that function by inhibiting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase and are extremely efficacious in reducing elevated LDL-C in the serum and preventing atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. However, statins have some limitations, such as poor aqueous solubility, low oral absorption, and, consequently, limited bioavailability when administered by the oral route. The field of nanotechnology is now well developed and some of these newer nanotechnology strategies offer systems with enhanced aqueous solubility of the statin, increased absorption, bioavailability, and controlled release of the statin at the site of administration. Here, we discuss nano-sized drug delivery systems to enhance the therapeutic potential of statins.

Statins anticancer targeted delivery systems: re-purposing an old molecule

OBJECTIVES

Exploring the use of statins as anticancer agents and exploiting different drug delivery systems in targeting these molecules to cancerous sites. Literature review was performed to investigate the use of statins in cancer treatment in one hand, and the different pharmaceutical approaches to deliver and target these drugs to their site of action.

KEY FINDINGS

Statins were used for decades as antihypercholestrolemic drugs but recently have been proven potential for broad anticancer activities. The incorporation of statins in nanoparticulate drug delivery systems not only augmented the cytotoxicity of statins but also overcame the resistance of cancerous cells against the traditional chemotherapeutic agents. Statins-loaded nanoparticles could be easily tampered to target the cancerous cells and consequently minimal drug amount could be utilized.

SUMMARY

This review reconnoitered the different endeavors to incorporate statins in various nanoparticles and summarized the successful effects in targeting cancerous cells and reducing their proliferation without the side effects of commonly used chemotherapeutic agents.

Recent advances in engineered chitosan-based nanogels for biomedical applications

Recent progress in the preparation and biomedical applications of engineered chitosan-based nanogels has been comprehensively reviewed.