The antecedents, experience, and coping strategies of driver boredom in young adult males

Note-taking for the win: Doodling does not reduce boredom or mind-wandering, nor enhance attention or retention of lecture material

Doodling and fidgeting-traditionally viewed in educational contexts as markers of inattention and poor classroom behaviour-have more recently been considered as possible routes to improve performance by reducing boredom and its negative impact on memory. However, there is a surprising lack of well-controlled studies examining this possibility, despite the widespread adoption of fidget toys and doodling exercises within classroom settings. Here we report two experiments (total N = 222) that assess the impact of doodling on boredom, attention, mind-wandering, and subsequent recall of auditory information. In Experiment 1, participants first listened to a 15-min section of a lecture known to induce boredom. Immediately thereafter they were asked to jot down important information from a short voicemail that they listened to while either doodling (adding shading to shapes) or doing nothing in between note-taking. In Experiment 2, participants listened to a 45-min section of the same lecture under one of four conditions: structured doodling (i.e., shade in shapes), unstructured doodling, note-taking, or listen-only. Thought probes assessed self-perceived levels of state boredom, mind-wandering, and attention throughout the lecture. Across studies, doodling neither reduced boredom or mind-wandering nor increased attention or retention of information compared with other conditions. In contrast, attention and test performance were highest (and boredom and mind-wandering lowest) for those focused solely on note-taking.

Leveraging Wearable Sensors in Virtual Reality Driving Simulators: A Review of Techniques and Applications

Virtual reality (VR) driving simulators are very promising tools for driver assessment since they provide a controlled and adaptable setting for behavior analysis. At the same time, wearable sensor technology provides a well-suited and valuable approach to evaluating the behavior of drivers and their physiological or psychological state. This review paper investigates the potential of wearable sensors in VR driving simulators. Methods: A literature search was performed on four databases (Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and IEEE Xplore) using appropriate search terms to retrieve scientific articles from a period of eleven years, from 2013 to 2023. Results: After removing duplicates and irrelevant papers, 44 studies were selected for analysis. Some important aspects were extracted and presented: the number of publications per year, countries of publication, the source of publications, study aims, characteristics of the participants, and types of wearable sensors. Moreover, an analysis and discussion of different aspects are provided. To improve car simulators that use virtual reality technologies and boost the effectiveness of particular driver training programs, data from the studies included in this systematic review and those scheduled for the upcoming years may be of interest.

The relationship between trait emotional intelligence and English language performance among Chinese EFL university students: The mediating roles of boredom and burnout

With the wave of positive psychology in second language acquisition, more emotion factors are gaining scholarly attention. Despite extensive research on Trait Emotional Intelligence (TEI), burnout and boredom in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) studies, the interplay of these variables remains unknown and the related impact on EFL learner's English Language Performance (ELP) is still underexplored. Given this, in light of Control-Value Theory (CVT), the present study used a quantitative method to examine the mediating roles of boredom and burnout in the connection between TEI and ELP among Chinese university students engaged in EFL endeavor. Data were collected from 489 s-year non-English major students. Structural equation modeling was utilized to analyze the relationships. Results revealed that TEI significantly influences ELP among Chinese EFL university students, through its correlation with both boredom and burnout. Higher levels of TEI are associated with reduced experiences of these negative states, which in turn are linked to improved language performance. These may imply that teacher educators should integrate emotional intelligence training into curricula and professional development to improve students' effectiveness and learning outcome.

Measurement invariance of the driving inattention scale (ARDES) across 7 countries

The Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES) is a self-report measure of individual differences in driving inattention. ARDES was originally developed in Spanish (Argentina), and later adapted to other countries and languages. Evidence supporting the reliability and validity of ARDES scores has been obtained in various different countries. However, no study has been conducted to specifically examine the measurement invariance of ARDES measures across countries, thus limiting their comparability. Can different language versions of ARDES provide comparable measures across countries with different traffic regulations and cultural norms? To what extent might cultural differences prevent researchers from making valid inferences based on ARDES measures? Using Alignment Analysis, the present study assessed the approximate invariance of ARDES measures in seven countries: Argentina (n = 603), Australia (n = 378), Brazil (n = 220), China (n = 308). Spain (n = 310), UK (n = 298), and USA (n = 278). The three-factor structure of ARDES scores (differentiating driving errors occurring at Navigation, Manoeuvring and Control levels) was used as the target theoretical model. A fixed alignment analysis was conducted to examine approximate measurement invariance. 12.3 % of the intercepts and 0.8 % of the item-factor loadings were identified as non-invariant, averaging 8.6 % of non-invariance. Despite substantial differences among the countries, sample recruitment or representativeness, study results support resorting to ARDES measures to make comparisons across the country samples. Thus, the range of cultures, laws and collision risk across these 7 countries provides a demanding assessment for a cultural-free inattention while-driving. The alignment analysis results suggest that ARDES measures reach near equivalence among the countries in the study. We hope this study will serve as a basis for future cross-cultural research on driving inattention using ARDES.

A randomized controlled pilot trial of brief online mindfulness training in young drivers

OBJECTIVE

Driver distraction contributes to fatal and injury crashes in young drivers. Mind wandering (MW) is a covert form of distraction involving task-unrelated thoughts. Brief online mindfulness training (MT) may reduce unsafe driving by enhancing recognition (meta-awareness) of MW and reducing its occurrence. This pilot trial tested these proposed mechanisms of MT and explored its specificity of action, effects on driving behaviour in simulation, as well as intervention adherence and acceptability in young drivers.

METHODS

A pre-post (T1, T2), randomized, active placebo-controlled, double-blinded design was used. Twenty-six drivers, aged 21-25, received either brief online MT (experimental) or progressive muscle relaxation (PMR, control) over 4-6 days. A custom website blindly conducted randomization, delivered interventions, administered questionnaires, and tracked adherence. At T1 and T2, a simulator measured driving behaviour while participants indicated MW whenever they recognized it, to assess meta-awareness, and when prompted by a thought-probe, to assess overall MW.

RESULTS

MT reduced MW while driving in simulation. The MT group reported higher state mindfulness following sessions. Motivation did not account for MW or mindfulness results. MT and meta-awareness were associated with more focus-related steering behaviour. Intervention groups did not significantly differ in adherence or attrition. No severe adverse effects were reported, but MT participants reported more difficulty following intervention instructions.

CONCLUSION

Results support a plausible mechanism of MT for reducing MW-related crash risk (i.e., reduction of MW) in young drivers. This preliminary evidence, alongside promising online adherence and acceptability results, warrants definitive efficacy and effectiveness trials of online MT.

The happy learner: Effects of academic boredom, burnout, and engagement

This study aimed to investigate the impact of demographic and contextual variables on boredom in English and mathematics, and to test structural models of boredom, learner burnout, learner engagement, and life satisfaction. Using a cross-sectional survey design and employing a convenience sampling technique, 544 secondary school learners in the Sedibeng District, Gauteng, South Africa, took part in the study. The participants completed the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire - English, the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire - Mathematics, the Schoolwork Engagement Inventory, the School Burnout Inventory, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Latent variable modeling was used to test measurement and structural models of boredom, burnout, engagement, and life satisfaction. The indirect effects of boredom on life satisfaction were also computed. The results showed that Afrikaans as the home language, the final mark for English in the previous examination, caregivers that cannot help with English homework, and disliking the English teacher predicted boredom in English. Afrikaans as the home language, marks for mathematics in the previous examination, not having the ability to focus on schoolwork at home, and disliking the mathematics teacher predicted boredom in mathematics. Boredom in mathematics and English resulted in an increase in learner burnout and a decrease in learner engagement. Furthermore, boredom in mathematics and English indirectly affected life satisfaction via learner burnout and engagement.

Motor Vehicle Collisions during Adolescence: The Role of Alexithymic Traits and Defense Strategies

International literature has shown that adolescents represent the population most at risk of fatal and nonfatal motor vehicle collisions (MVCs). Adolescents’ alexithymic traits and significant use of immature defense strategies have been seen to play a key role. This study aimed to investigate the possible mediation role played by defense strategies use in the relationship between alexithymia and MVCs. Our sample consisted of 297 adolescents divided into four subgroups, based on the number of visits to the emergency department due to an MVC. We assessed adolescents’ alexithymic traits and defense strategies use through self-report instruments. Results showed that males reported a higher rate of MVCs than females. Higher rates of MVCs are associated with more alexithymic traits and maladaptive defense strategies use. Adolescents’ Acting Out and Omnipotence use significantly mediated the relationship between alexithymia and MVCs. Our findings suggest the recidivism of MVCs as an attempt to cope with emotional difficulties, with important clinical implications.

The map of cognitive processes in boredom: multiple mediation models

BACKGROUND

Trait boredom is associated with several internalizing and externalizing problems. Addressing existing research gaps in the field, the present study investigated the map of cognitive processes for boredom, based on the rational emotive behaviour therapy model (REBT).

AIMS

The general aim of the study was to investigate the organization of irrational and rational evaluative cognitions related to boredom, and the association between boredom and depression symptoms and state/trait anxiety.

METHODS

The 233 participants (84% women) completed online scales of evaluative cognitions, trait boredom, trait/state anxiety and depression. Multiple mediation models via the SPSS extension PROCESS were employed.

RESULTS

The REBT psychopathology and psychological health models were partially confirmed, as the evaluative primary cognitions predicted positively and significantly the secondary ones in both cases. Low frustration tolerance (LFT) and global evaluations (GE), and frustration tolerance (FT), respectively, had significant effects. We found a positive significant association between boredom proneness and the negative dysfunctional emotions investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

Both results offer further support for the hierarchy of cognitions and the distinction between the level of irrationality and rationality in REBT. This is the first attempt to assess a cognitive map of boredom, underlining the importance of (L)FT in relation to boredom. The significance of GE in boredom suggests that people might see themselves responsible, or even blame themselves, others or life itself while bored. The associations of boredom with anxiety and depression are relevant, as its role in those contexts is not yet fully understood.

Naturalistic Driving Study in Brazil: An Analysis of Mobile Phone Use Behavior while Driving

Mobile phone use (MPU) while driving is an important road safety challenge worldwide. Naturalistic driving studies (NDS) emerged as one of the most sophisticated methodologies to investigate driver behavior; however, NDS have not been implemented in low- or middle-income countries. The aim of this research is to investigate MPU while driving and compare the results to those reported in international studies. An analysis of 61.32 h and 1350 km driven in Curitiba (Brazil) showed that MPU lasted for an average of 28.51 s (n = 627) and occurred in 58.71% of trips (n = 201) with an average frequency of 8.37 interactions per hour (n = 201). The proportion of the trip time using a mobile phone was 7.03% (n = 201), and the average instantaneous speed was 12.77 km/h (n = 627) while using the phone. Generally, drivers spent less time on more complex interactions and selected a lower speed when using the phone. MPU was observed more during short duration than longer trips. Drivers in this study engaged in a larger number of MPU compared to drivers from Netherlands and the United States; and the percentage of trip time with MPU was between North American and European values.

Hard to Bear

Abstract. Establishing a causal relationship between state boredom and risk taking is contributory to understand the nature of boredom and its influences. This research examines how and why state boredom influences financial risk taking. Across multiple inductions of state boredom, we found that state boredom increased participants’ preference for engaging in financial risk-taking behavior (Studies 1, 2, and 3) and actual financial risk-taking behavior (Studies 2 and 4). An internal meta-analysis verified the robustness of this effect. We also assessed four potential mediators and found motivation to seek stimulation as the best explicable mediator (Studies 3 and 4). Overall, the current research signified the role of state boredom in predicting financial risk taking as a function of motivation to seek stimulation.

Mind wandering during everyday driving: An on-road study

This study was an investigation into mind wandering during everyday driving, and its association with crash patterns. We selected a 25 km route on urban roads for analysis of crashes, and an on-road study of mind wandering by a sample of drivers familiar with the route. We analysed reported crashes on the route over a five year period from New Zealand's crash database. For the on-road study a researcher accompanied 25 drivers on the route, asking them what they were thinking about at 15 predetermined road sections. The road sections were selected to include a range of different speed limits and traffic volumes as well as roundabouts, priority intersections and midblocks. Thought samples were categorised as either mind wandering or driving focus, and triggered by the senses, or internally. The frequencies of mind wandering at different road sections on the route were compared to the frequencies of reported crashes along the same route over the preceding five years. Results showed that although all drivers reported mind wandering, it was more likely to be reported at slower, quieter, less complex road sections. Overall, more crashes were reported at priority intersections and midblocks than at roundabouts, but the crash rate (per road section) was higher at roundabouts, where mind wandering was least likely to be reported. These findings suggest that although drivers' minds wander constantly, driving focus is commanded in demanding situations and in response to the actions of other road users. While mind wandering is ubiquitous, drivers are least likely to report mind wandering at locations showing the highest crash rates. More work is needed to test these findings and to provide direction for road safety interventions.

The knowns and unknowns of boredom: a review of the literature

Despite the ubiquitous nature of boredom, the definition, function, and correlates of boredom are still poorly understood. In this review, we summarize the "known" (consistent evidence) and "unknown" (inconsistent evidence) correlates of boredom. We show that boredom is consistently related to negative affect, task-unrelated thought, over-estimation of elapsed time, reduced agency, as well as to over- and under-stimulation. Activation of the default mode network was consistent across the few available fMRI studies, while the recruitment of other brain areas such as the hippocampus and anterior insular cortex, was a notable but less consistent correlate of boredom. Other less consistent correlates of boredom are also reviewed, such as the level of arousal and the mental attributions given to fluctuations of attention. Finally, we identify two critical factors that may contribute to current inconsistencies in the literature and may hamper further progress in the field. First, there is relatively little consistency in the way in which boredom has been operationalized across studies to date, with operationalizations of boredom ranging from negative affect paired with under-stimulation, over-stimulation, to negative affect paired with a lack of goal-directed actions. Second, preliminary evidence suggests the existence of distinct types of boredom (e.g., searching vs. apathetic) that may have different and sometimes even opposing correlates. Adopting a more precise and consistent way of operationalizing boredom, and arriving at an empirically validated taxonomy of different types of boredom, could serve to overcome the current roadblocks to facilitate further progress in our scientific understanding of boredom.