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Zaltieri M, Massaroni C, Cauti FM, Schena E. Techniques for Temperature Monitoring of Myocardial Tissue Undergoing Radiofrequency Ablation Treatments: An Overview. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:1453. [PMID: 33669692 PMCID: PMC7922285 DOI: 10.3390/s21041453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac radiofrequency ablation (RFA) has received substantial attention for the treatment of multiple arrhythmias. In this scenario, there is an ever-growing demand for monitoring the temperature trend inside the tissue as it may allow an accurate control of the treatment effects, with a consequent improvement of the clinical outcomes. There are many methods for monitoring temperature in tissues undergoing RFA, which can be divided into invasive and non-invasive. This paper aims to provide an overview of the currently available techniques for temperature detection in this clinical scenario. Firstly, we describe the heat generation during RFA, then we report the principle of work of the most popular thermometric techniques and their features. Finally, we introduce their main applications in the field of cardiac RFA to explore the applicability in clinical settings of each method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Zaltieri
- Department of Engineering, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 00128 Rome, Italy; (M.Z.); (C.M.)
| | - Carlo Massaroni
- Department of Engineering, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 00128 Rome, Italy; (M.Z.); (C.M.)
| | - Filippo Maria Cauti
- Arrhythmology Unit, Cardiology Division, S. Giovanni Calibita Hospital, Isola Tiberina, 00186 Rome, Italy;
| | - Emiliano Schena
- Department of Engineering, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 00128 Rome, Italy; (M.Z.); (C.M.)
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Adibzadeh F, Sumser K, Curto S, Yeo DTB, Shishegar AA, Paulides MM. Systematic review of pre-clinical and clinical devices for magnetic resonance-guided radiofrequency hyperthermia. Int J Hyperthermia 2020; 37:15-27. [PMID: 31918599 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2019.1705404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical trials have demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of adding radiofrequency (RF) hyperthermia (HT) as an adjuvant to radio- and chemotherapy. However, maximum utilization of these benefits is hampered by the current inability to maintain the temperature within the desired range. RF HT treatment quality is usually monitored by invasive temperature sensors, which provide limited data sampling and are prone to infection risks. Magnetic resonance (MR) temperature imaging has been developed to overcome these hurdles by allowing noninvasive 3D temperature monitoring in the target and normal tissues. To exploit this feature, several approaches for inserting the RF heating devices into the MR scanner have been proposed over the years. In this review, we summarize the status quo in MR-guided RF HT devices and analyze trends in these hybrid hardware configurations. In addition, we discuss the various approaches, extract best practices and identify gaps regarding the experimental validation procedures for MR - RF HT, aimed at converging to a common standard in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Adibzadeh
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Erasmus MC - Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Sharif, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kemal Sumser
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Erasmus MC - Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sergio Curto
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Erasmus MC - Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Amir A Shishegar
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Sharif, Tehran, Iran
| | - Margarethus M Paulides
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Erasmus MC - Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Eindhoven, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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Recent advances in ultrasound-triggered drug delivery through lipid-based nanomaterials. Drug Discov Today 2020; 25:2182-2200. [PMID: 33010479 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The high prescribed dose of anticancer drugs and their resulting adverse effects on healthy tissue are significant drawbacks to conventional chemotherapy (CTP). Ideally, drugs should have the lowest possible degree of interaction with healthy cells, which would diminish any adverse effects. Therefore, an ideal scenario to bring about improvements in CTP is the use of technological strategies to ensure the efficient, specific, and selective transport and/or release of drugs to the target site. One practical and feasible solution to promote the efficiency of conventional CTP is the use of ultrasound (US). In this review, we highlight the potential role of US in combination with lipid-based carriers to achieve a targeted CTP strategy in engineered smart drug delivery systems.
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Practical implementation of robust MR-thermometry during clinical MR-guided microwave ablations in the liver at 1.5 T. Phys Med 2019; 67:91-99. [PMID: 31704392 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2019.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Practical non-invasive equipment modifications and effective acquisition methods to achieve robust and reliable real-time MR thermometry for monitoring of clinical hepatic microwave ablations were implemented. These included selection of the microwave generator location (inside versus outside the MR scan room), the number of radiofrequency chokes added to the microwave generator's coaxial lines, and the use of copper wool to maximize their electrical grounding. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of MR thermometry images of a small fluid-filled phantom acquired during activation of microwave antenna were used to evaluate image quality as a function of each modification. SNR measurements corresponding to both locations of the microwave generator were comparable and so it was located outside the MR scan room. For this location, addition of one RF choke on the power and four chokes on the sensor coaxial lines was found to be optimal, corresponding to a 68% increase in SNR. Furthermore, image quality strongly depended on the proper electrical grounding of the power and sensor lines. SNR ratio (relative to SNR of baseline images) during activation of microwave generator was found to be 0.49 ± 0.28 without adequate grounding, and 0.88 ± 0.08 with adequate grounding (p = 0.002, Student's t-test). These SNR measurements were sufficiently sensitive to detect issues related to equipment performance and hence formed part of the quality assurance testing performed prior to each clinical treatment. Incorporating these non-invasive approaches resulted in significant improvements to image quality and, importantly while maintaining the clinical integrity of the microwave system which is of paramount importance in a highly regulated healthcare environment.
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Fiber Optic Sensors for Temperature Monitoring during Thermal Treatments: An Overview. SENSORS 2016; 16:s16071144. [PMID: 27455273 PMCID: PMC4970186 DOI: 10.3390/s16071144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
During recent decades, minimally invasive thermal treatments (i.e., Radiofrequency ablation, Laser ablation, Microwave ablation, High Intensity Focused Ultrasound ablation, and Cryo-ablation) have gained widespread recognition in the field of tumor removal. These techniques induce a localized temperature increase or decrease to remove the tumor while the surrounding healthy tissue remains intact. An accurate measurement of tissue temperature may be particularly beneficial to improve treatment outcomes, because it can be used as a clear end-point to achieve complete tumor ablation and minimize recurrence. Among the several thermometric techniques used in this field, fiber optic sensors (FOSs) have several attractive features: high flexibility and small size of both sensor and cabling, allowing insertion of FOSs within deep-seated tissue; metrological characteristics, such as accuracy (better than 1 °C), sensitivity (e.g., 10 pm·°C−1 for Fiber Bragg Gratings), and frequency response (hundreds of kHz), are adequate for this application; immunity to electromagnetic interference allows the use of FOSs during Magnetic Resonance- or Computed Tomography-guided thermal procedures. In this review the current status of the most used FOSs for temperature monitoring during thermal procedure (e.g., fiber Bragg Grating sensors; fluoroptic sensors) is presented, with emphasis placed on their working principles and metrological characteristics. The essential physics of the common ablation techniques are included to explain the advantages of using FOSs during these procedures.
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Dąbrowska AK, Rotaru GM, Derler S, Spano F, Camenzind M, Annaheim S, Stämpfli R, Schmid M, Rossi RM. Materials used to simulate physical properties of human skin. Skin Res Technol 2015; 22:3-14. [DOI: 10.1111/srt.12235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. K. Dąbrowska
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - G.-M. Rotaru
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - S. Derler
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - F. Spano
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - M. Camenzind
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - S. Annaheim
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - R. Stämpfli
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - M. Schmid
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - R. M. Rossi
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology; Laboratory for Protection and Physiology; St. Gallen Switzerland
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Yamaguchi S, Tsutsui K, Satake K, Morikawa S, Shirai Y, Tanaka HT. Dynamic analysis of a needle insertion for soft materials: Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian-based three-dimensional finite element analysis. Comput Biol Med 2014; 53:42-7. [PMID: 25127407 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2014.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Biomaterials Science, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, 1-8 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Kihei Tsutsui
- Lancemore, Co., M&M2 Building 3F, 5-41-3 Kamata, Ota-ku, Tokyo 144-0052, Japan
| | - Koji Satake
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
| | - Shigehiro Morikawa
- Biomedical MR Science Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta Tsukinowa-chou, Otsu, Shiga 520-2192, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Shirai
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
| | - Hiromi T Tanaka
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
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Zhou W, Ding Q, Liu X, Jiang Y, Chen L, Zhang Y, Xia T, Wang S. Percutaneous microwave coagulation for eradication of VX2 tumors subcutaneously in rabbits. World J Surg Oncol 2012; 10:97. [PMID: 22647138 PMCID: PMC3438036 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7819-10-97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Percutaneous microwave coagulation (PMC) has been accepted as a promising modality in the treatment of tumors in well-vascularized tissues such as liver tumors and hysteromyoma. However, PMC for treatment of tumors in low blood-flow tissues has been seldom reported. The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility and safety of PMC for the treatment of tumors in low blood-flow tissues in a rabbit model. METHODS Fifteen rabbits with VX2 tumors implanted subcutaneously underneath the right second nipple were divided into a PMC group (n = 9) and a control group (n = 6). PMC was performed with output power of 40 W for one to two minutes. The therapeutic efficacy was evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), physical examinations, survival rate, and histology. The cosmetic outcome after PMC was also assessed. RESULTS In the PMC group, tumor eradication was achieved in six rabbits (66.7%) without any evidence of tumor recurrence and metastasis as proven by MRI and histological examinations. The mean greatest and shortest tumor diameters of these six rabbits were 1.83 and 1.33 cm, respectively. Slight epidermal burns, which proved reversible, were found in seven rabbits (77.8%). The PMC group had a significantly longer survival than those in the control group (P = 0.0097). The four rabbits with coagulated tumors survived more than three months with their tumors becoming nonpalpable and undetectable by MRI and histological examinations. CONCLUSIONS PMC is feasible and safe in the treatment of tumors in low blood-flow tissues in a rabbit model. Attention should be paid to avoid skin burns with PMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbin Zhou
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 300 Guangzhou Road, Nanjing 210029, China
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Measurement of temperature changes in cooling dead rats using magnetic resonance thermometry. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2011; 13:314-7. [PMID: 21940187 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2010] [Revised: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/31/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging thermometry has been introduced as a technique for measurement of temperature changes in cooling dead rats. Rat pelvic magnetic resonance images were acquired sequentially more than 2h after euthanasia by halothane overdose. A series of temperature difference maps in cooling dead rats was obtained with calculating imaging phase changes induced by the water proton frequency shift caused by temperature changes. Different cooling processes were monitored by the temperature difference maps in the rats. Magnetic resonance imaging thermometry applied in the study of laboratory animals could theoretically reproduce a variety of causes of death with different environmental conditions. Outcomes from experimental animal studies could be translated into a temperature-based time of death estimation in forensics.
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Abstract
Catheter ablation is a first-line treatment for many cardiac arrhythmias and is generally performed under X-ray fluoroscopy guidance. However, current techniques for ablating complex arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia are associated with sub-optimal success rates and prolonged radiation exposure. Pre-procedure 3-D magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has improved understanding of the anatomic basis of complex arrhythmias and is being used for planning and guidance of ablation procedures. A particular strength of MRI compared to other imaging modalities is the ability to visualize ablation lesions. Post-procedure MRI is now being applied to assess ablation lesion location and permanence with the goal of identifying factors leading to procedure success and failure. In the future, intra-procedure real-time MRI, together with the ability to image complex 3-D arrhythmogenic anatomy and target additional ablation to regions of incomplete lesion formation, may allow for more successful treatment of even complex arrhythmias without exposure to ionizing radiation. Development of clinical grade MRI-compatible electrophysiology devices is required to transition intra-procedure MRI from preclinical studies to more routine use in patients.
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Jenista ER, Galiana G, Branca RT, Yarmolenko PS, Stokes AM, Dewhirst MW, Warren WS. Application of mixed spin iMQCs for temperature and chemical-selective imaging. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2010; 204:208-18. [PMID: 20303808 PMCID: PMC2874652 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2010.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2009] [Revised: 02/22/2010] [Accepted: 02/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The development of accurate and non-invasive temperature imaging techniques has a wide variety of applications in fields such as medicine, chemistry and materials science. Accurate detection of temperature both in phantoms and in vivo can be obtained using iMQCs (intermolecular multiple quantum coherences), as demonstrated in a recent paper. This paper describes the underlying theory of iMQC temperature detection, as well as extensions of that work allowing not only for imaging of absolute temperature but also for imaging of analyte concentrations through chemically-selective spin density imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth R Jenista
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Imaging, 2220 French Family Science Center, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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Kolandaivelu A, Lardo AC, Halperin HR. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance guided electrophysiology studies. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2009; 11:21. [PMID: 19580654 PMCID: PMC2719626 DOI: 10.1186/1532-429x-11-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2009] [Accepted: 07/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Catheter ablation is a first line treatment for many cardiac arrhythmias and is generally performed under x-ray fluoroscopy guidance. However, current techniques for ablating complex arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia are associated with suboptimal success rates and prolonged radiation exposure. Pre-procedure 3D CMR has improved understanding of the anatomic basis of complex arrhythmias and is being used for planning and guidance of ablation procedures. A particular strength of CMR compared to other imaging modalities is the ability to visualize ablation lesions. Post-procedure CMR is now being applied to assess ablation lesion location and permanence with the goal of indentifying factors leading to procedure success and failure. In the future, intra-procedure real-time CMR, together with the ability to image complex 3-D arrhythmogenic anatomy and target additional ablation to regions of incomplete lesion formation, may allow for more successful treatment of even complex arrhythmias without exposure to ionizing radiation. Development of clinical grade CMR compatible electrophysiology devices is required to transition intra-procedure CMR from pre-clinical studies to more routine use in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Albert C Lardo
- Johns Hopkins Hospital, Division of Cardiology, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Henry R Halperin
- Johns Hopkins Hospital, Division of Cardiology, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Kolandaivelu A, Halperin H. MRI for electrophysiology. CURRENT CARDIOVASCULAR IMAGING REPORTS 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s12410-009-0014-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Kullberg M, Mann K, Owens JL. A two-component drug delivery system using Her-2-targeting thermosensitive liposomes. J Drug Target 2009; 17:98-107. [DOI: 10.1080/10611860802471562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Tokuda J, Morikawa S, Haque HA, Tsukamoto T, Matsumiya K, Liao H, Masamune K, Dohi T. Adaptive 4D MR imaging using navigator-based respiratory signal for MRI-guided therapy. Magn Reson Med 2008; 59:1051-61. [PMID: 18429011 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.21436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
For real-time 3D visualization of respiratory organ motion for MRI-guided therapy, a new adaptive 4D MR imaging method based on navigator echo and multiple gating windows was developed. This method was designed to acquire a time series of volumetric 3D images of a cyclically moving organ, enabling therapy to be guided by synchronizing the 4D image with the actual organ motion in real time. The proposed method was implemented in an open-configuration 0.5T clinical MR scanner. To evaluate the feasibility and determine optimal imaging conditions, studies were conducted with a phantom, volunteers, and a patient. In the phantom study the root mean square (RMS) position error in the 4D image of the cyclically moving phantom was 1.9 mm and the imaging time was approximately 10 min when the 4D image had six frames. In the patient study, 4D images were successfully acquired under clinical conditions and a liver tumor was discriminated in the series of frames. The image quality was affected by the relations among the encoding direction, the slice orientation, and the direction of motion of the target organ. In conclusion, this study has shown that the proposed method is feasible and capable of providing a real-time dynamic 3D atlas for surgical navigation with sufficient accuracy and image quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junichi Tokuda
- Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
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de Senneville BD, Mougenot C, Quesson B, Dragonu I, Grenier N, Moonen CTW. MR thermometry for monitoring tumor ablation. Eur Radiol 2007; 17:2401-10. [PMID: 17701184 DOI: 10.1007/s00330-007-0646-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2007] [Accepted: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Local thermal therapies are increasingly used in the clinic for tissue ablation. During energy deposition, the actual tissue temperature is difficult to estimate since physiological processes may modify local heat conduction and energy absorption. Blood flow may increase during temperature increase and thus change heat conduction. In order to improve the therapeutic efficiency and the safety of the intervention, mapping of temperature and thermal dose appear to offer the best strategy to optimize such interventions and to provide therapy endpoints. MRI can be used to monitor local temperature changes during thermal therapies. On-line availability of dynamic temperature mapping allows prediction of tissue death during the intervention based on semi-empirical thermal dose calculations. Much progress has been made recently in MR thermometry research, and some applications are appearing in the clinic. In this paper, the principles of MRI temperature mapping are described with special emphasis on methods employing the temperature dependency of the water proton resonance frequency. Then, the prospects and requirements for widespread applications of MR thermometry in the clinic are evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baudouin Denis de Senneville
- Laboratory for Molecular and Functional Imaging: From Physiology to Therapy, CNRS/Université Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
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