A continuum approximation to an off-lattice individual-cell based model of cell migration and adhesion

Modelling non-local cell-cell adhesion: a multiscale approach

Cell-cell adhesion plays a vital role in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. One of its functions is regulation of cell migration, such as occurs, e.g. during embryogenesis or in cancer. In this work, we develop a versatile multiscale approach to modelling a moving self-adhesive cell population that combines a careful microscopic description of a deterministic adhesion-driven motion component with an efficient mesoscopic representation of a stochastic velocity-jump process. This approach gives rise to mesoscopic models in the form of kinetic transport equations featuring multiple non-localities. Subsequent parabolic and hyperbolic scalings produce general classes of equations with non-local adhesion and myopic diffusion, a special case being the classical macroscopic model proposed in Armstrong et al. (J Theoret Biol 243(1): 98-113, 2006). Our simulations show how the combination of the two motion effects can unfold. Cell-cell adhesion relies on the subcellular cell adhesion molecule binding. Our approach lends itself conveniently to capturing this microscopic effect. On the macroscale, this results in an additional non-linear integral equation of a novel type that is coupled to the cell density equation.

The salt-and-pepper pattern in mouse blastocysts is compatible with signaling beyond the nearest neighbors

Embryos develop in a concerted sequence of spatiotemporal arrangements of cells. In the preimplantation mouse embryo, the distribution of the cells in the inner cell mass evolves from a salt-and-pepper pattern to spatial segregation of two distinct cell types. The exact properties of the salt-and-pepper pattern have not been analyzed so far. We investigate the spatiotemporal distribution of NANOG- and GATA6-expressing cells in the ICM of the mouse blastocysts with quantitative three-dimensional single-cell-based neighborhood analyses. A combination of spatial statistics and agent-based modeling reveals that the cell fate distribution follows a local clustering pattern. Using ordinary differential equations modeling, we show that this pattern can be established by a distance-based signaling mechanism enabling cells to integrate information from the whole inner cell mass into their cell fate decision. Our work highlights the importance of longer-range signaling to ensure coordinated decisions in groups of cells to successfully build embryos.

Multiscale Asymptotic Analysis Reveals How Cell Growth and Subcellular Compartments Affect Tissue-Scale Hormone Transport

Determining how cell-scale processes lead to tissue-scale patterns is key to understanding how hormones and morphogens are distributed within biological tissues and control developmental processes. In this article, we use multiscale asymptotic analysis to derive a continuum approximation for hormone transport in a long file of cells to determine how subcellular compartments and cell growth and division affect tissue-scale hormone transport. Focusing our study on plant tissues, we begin by presenting a discrete multicellular ODE model tracking the hormone concentration in each cell's cytoplasm, subcellular vacuole, and surrounding apoplast, represented by separate compartments in the cell-file geometry. We allow the cells to grow at a rate that can depend both on space and time, accounting for both cytoplasmic and vacuolar expansion. Multiscale asymptotic analysis enables us to systematically derive the corresponding continuum model, obtaining an effective reaction-advection-diffusion equation and revealing how the effective diffusivity, effective advective velocity, and the effective sink term depend on the parameters in the cell-scale model. The continuum approximation reveals how subcellular compartments, such as vacuoles, can act as storage vessels, that significantly alter the effective properties of hormone transport, such as the effective diffusivity and the induced effective velocity. Furthermore, we show how cell growth and spatial variance across cell lengths affect the effective diffusivity and the induced effective velocity, and how these affect the tissue-scale hormone distribution. In particular, we find that cell growth naturally induces an effective velocity in the direction of growth, whereas spatial variance across cell lengths induces effective velocity due to the presence of an extra compartment, such as the apoplast and the vacuole, and variations in the relative sizes between the compartments across the file of cells. It is revealed that hormone transport is faster across cells of decreasing lengths than cells with increasing lengths. We also investigate the effect of cell division on transport dynamics, assuming that each cell divides as soon as it doubles in size, and find that increasing the time between successive cell divisions decreases the growth rate, which enhances the effect of cell division in slowing hormone transport. Motivated by recent experimental discoveries, we discuss particular applications for transport of gibberellic acid (GA), an important growth hormone, within the Arabidopsis root. The model reveals precisely how membrane proteins that mediate facilitated GA transport affect the effective tissue-scale transport. However, the results are general enough to be relevant to other plant hormones, or other substances that are transported in a similar way in any type of cells.

Derivation of continuum models from discrete models of mechanical forces in cell populations

In certain discrete models of populations of biological cells, the mechanical forces between the cells are center based or vertex based on the microscopic level where each cell is individually represented. The cells are circular or spherical in a center based model and polygonal or polyhedral in a vertex based model. On a higher, macroscopic level, the time evolution of the density of the cells is described by partial differential equations (PDEs). We derive relations between the modelling on the micro and macro levels in one, two, and three dimensions by regarding the micro model as a discretization of a PDE for conservation of mass on the macro level. The forces in the micro model correspond on the macro level to a gradient of the pressure scaled by quantities depending on the cell geometry. The two levels of modelling are compared in numerical experiments in one and two dimensions.

BIO-LGCA: A cellular automaton modelling class for analysing collective cell migration

Collective dynamics in multicellular systems such as biological organs and tissues plays a key role in biological development, regeneration, and pathological conditions. Collective tissue dynamics—understood as population behaviour arising from the interplay of the constituting discrete cells—can be studied with on- and off-lattice agent-based models. However, classical on-lattice agent-based models, also known as cellular automata, fail to replicate key aspects of collective migration, which is a central instance of collective behaviour in multicellular systems. To overcome drawbacks of classical on-lattice models, we introduce an on-lattice, agent-based modelling class for collective cell migration, which we call biological lattice-gas cellular automaton (BIO-LGCA). The BIO-LGCA is characterised by synchronous time updates, and the explicit consideration of individual cell velocities. While rules in classical cellular automata are typically chosen ad hoc, rules for cell-cell and cell-environment interactions in the BIO-LGCA can also be derived from experimental cell migration data or biophysical laws for individual cell migration. We introduce elementary BIO-LGCA models of fundamental cell interactions, which may be combined in a modular fashion to model complex multicellular phenomena. We exemplify the mathematical mean-field analysis of specific BIO-LGCA models, which allows to explain collective behaviour. The first example predicts the formation of clusters in adhesively interacting cells. The second example is based on a novel BIO-LGCA combining adhesive interactions and alignment. For this model, our analysis clarifies the nature of the recently discovered invasion plasticity of breast cancer cells in heterogeneous environments.

Pattern formation during embryonic development and pathological tissue dynamics, such as cancer invasion, emerge from individual intercellular interactions. In order to study the impact of single cell dynamics and cell-cell interactions on tissue behaviour, one needs to develop space-time-dependent on- or off-lattice agent-based models (ABMs), which consider the behaviour of individual cells. However, classical on-lattice agent-based models also known as cellular automata fail to replicate key aspects of collective migration, which is a central instance of collective behaviour in multicellular systems. Here, we present the rule- and lattice-based BIO-LGCA modelling class which allows for (i) rigorous derivation of rules from biophysical laws and/or experimental data, (ii) mathematical analysis of collective migration, and (iii) computationally efficient simulations.

Neural network aided approximation and parameter inference of non-Markovian models of gene expression

Non-Markovian models of stochastic biochemical kinetics often incorporate explicit time delays to effectively model large numbers of intermediate biochemical processes. Analysis and simulation of these models, as well as the inference of their parameters from data, are fraught with difficulties because the dynamics depends on the system's history. Here we use an artificial neural network to approximate the time-dependent distributions of non-Markovian models by the solutions of much simpler time-inhomogeneous Markovian models; the approximation does not increase the dimensionality of the model and simultaneously leads to inference of the kinetic parameters. The training of the neural network uses a relatively small set of noisy measurements generated by experimental data or stochastic simulations of the non-Markovian model. We show using a variety of models, where the delays stem from transcriptional processes and feedback control, that the Markovian models learnt by the neural network accurately reflect the stochastic dynamics across parameter space.

Learning differential equation models from stochastic agent-based model simulations

Agent-based models provide a flexible framework that is frequently used for modelling many biological systems, including cell migration, molecular dynamics, ecology and epidemiology. Analysis of the model dynamics can be challenging due to their inherent stochasticity and heavy computational requirements. Common approaches to the analysis of agent-based models include extensive Monte Carlo simulation of the model or the derivation of coarse-grained differential equation models to predict the expected or averaged output from the agent-based model. Both of these approaches have limitations, however, as extensive computation of complex agent-based models may be infeasible, and coarse-grained differential equation models can fail to accurately describe model dynamics in certain parameter regimes. We propose that methods from the equation learning field provide a promising, novel and unifying approach for agent-based model analysis. Equation learning is a recent field of research from data science that aims to infer differential equation models directly from data. We use this tutorial to review how methods from equation learning can be used to learn differential equation models from agent-based model simulations. We demonstrate that this framework is easy to use, requires few model simulations, and accurately predicts model dynamics in parameter regions where coarse-grained differential equation models fail to do so. We highlight these advantages through several case studies involving two agent-based models that are broadly applicable to biological phenomena: a birth-death-migration model commonly used to explore cell biology experiments and a susceptible-infected-recovered model of infectious disease spread.

Detection and characterization of chemotaxis without cell tracking

Swarming has been observed in various biological systems from collective animal movements to immune cells. In the cellular context, swarming is driven by the secretion of chemotactic factors. Despite the critical role of chemotactic swarming, few methods to robustly identify and quantify this phenomenon exist. Here, we present a novel method for the analysis of time series of positional data generated from realizations of agent-based processes. We convert the positional data for each individual time point to a function measuring agent aggregation around a given area of interest, hence generating a functional time series. The functional time series, and a more easily visualized swarming metric of agent aggregation derived from these functions, provide useful information regarding the evolution of the underlying process over time. We extend our method to build upon the modelling of collective motility using drift-diffusion partial differential equations (PDEs). Using a functional linear model, we are able to use the functional time series to estimate the drift and diffusivity terms associated with the underlying PDE. By producing an accurate estimate for the drift coefficient, we can infer the strength and range of attraction or repulsion exerted on agents, as in chemotaxis. Our approach relies solely on using agent positional data. The spatial distribution of diffusing chemokines is not required, nor do individual agents need to be tracked over time. We demonstrate our approach using random walk simulations of chemotaxis and experiments investigating cytotoxic T cells interacting with tumouroids.

Mathematical models for cell migration: a non-local perspective

We provide a review of recent advancements in non-local continuous models for migration, mainly from the perspective of its involvement in embryonal development and cancer invasion. Particular emphasis is placed on spatial non-locality occurring in advection terms, used to characterize a cell's motility bias according to its interactions with other cellular and acellular components in its vicinity (e.g. cell-cell and cell-tissue adhesions, non-local chemotaxis), but we also briefly address spatially non-local source terms. Following a short introduction and description of applications, we give a systematic classification of available PDE models with respect to the type of featured non-localities and review some of the mathematical challenges arising from such models, with a focus on analytical aspects. This article is part of the theme issue 'Multi-scale analysis and modelling of collective migration in biological systems'.

Roles of Remote and Contact Forces in Epithelial Cell Structure Formation

Cancer cells collectively form a large-scale structure for their growth. In this article, we report that HeLa cells, epithelial-like human cervical cancer cells, aggressively migrate on Matrigel and form a large-scale structure in a cell-density-dependent manner. To explain the experimental results, we develop a simple model in which cells interact and migrate using the two fundamentally different types of force, remote and contact forces, and show how cells form a large-scale structure. We demonstrate that the simple model reproduces experimental observations, suggesting that the remote and contact forces considered in this work play a major role in large-scale structure formation of HeLa cells. This article provides important evidence that cancer cells form a large-scale structure and develops an understanding into the poorly understood mechanisms of their structure formation.

Modelling collective cell migration: neural crest as a model paradigm

A huge variety of mathematical models have been used to investigate collective cell migration. The aim of this brief review is twofold: to present a number of modelling approaches that incorporate the key factors affecting cell migration, including cell-cell and cell-tissue interactions, as well as domain growth, and to showcase their application to model the migration of neural crest cells. We discuss the complementary strengths of microscale and macroscale models, and identify why it can be important to understand how these modelling approaches are related. We consider neural crest cell migration as a model paradigm to illustrate how the application of different mathematical modelling techniques, combined with experimental results, can provide new biological insights. We conclude by highlighting a number of future challenges for the mathematical modelling of neural crest cell migration.

Continuum descriptions of spatial spreading for heterogeneous cell populations: Theory and experiment

Variability in cell populations is frequently observed in both in vitro and in vivo settings. Intrinsic differences within populations of cells, such as differences in cell sizes or differences in rates of cell motility, can be present even within a population of cells from the same cell line. We refer to this variability as cell heterogeneity. Mathematical models of cell migration, for example, in the context of tumour growth and metastatic invasion, often account for both undirected (random) migration and directed migration that is mediated by cell-to-cell contacts and cell-to-cell adhesion. A key feature of standard models is that they often assume that the population is composed of identical cells with constant properties. This leads to relatively simple single-species homogeneous models that neglect the role of heterogeneity. In this work, we use a continuum modelling approach to explore the role of heterogeneity in spatial spreading of cell populations. We employ a three-species heterogeneous model of cell motility that explicitly incorporates different types of experimentally-motivated heterogeneity in cell sizes: (i) monotonically decreasing; (ii) uniform; (iii) non-monotonic; and (iv) monotonically increasing distributions of cell size. Comparing the density profiles generated by the three-species heterogeneous model with density profiles predicted by a more standard single-species homogeneous model reveals that when we are dealing with monotonically decreasing and uniform distributions a simple and computationally efficient single-species homogeneous model can be remarkably accurate in describing the evolution of a heterogeneous cell population. In contrast, we find that the simpler single-species homogeneous model performs relatively poorly when applied to non-monotonic and monotonically increasing distributions of cell sizes. Additional results for heterogeneity in parameters describing both undirected and directed cell migration are also considered, and we find that similar results apply.

Polarization wave at the onset of collective cell migration

Collective cell migration underlies morphogenesis, tissue regeneration, and cancer progression. How the biomechanical coupling between epithelial cells triggers and coordinates the collective migration is an open question. Here, we develop a one-dimensional model for an epithelial monolayer which predicts that after the onset of migration at an open boundary, cells in the bulk of the epithelium are gradually recruited into outward-directed motility, exhibiting traveling-wave-like behavior. We find an exact formula for the speed of this motility wave proportional to the square root of the cells' contractility, which accounts for cortex tension and adhesion between adjacent cells.

A one-dimensional individual-based mechanical model of cell movement in heterogeneous tissues and its coarse-grained approximation

Mechanical heterogeneity in biological tissues, in particular stiffness, can be used to distinguish between healthy and diseased states. However, it is often difficult to explore relationships between cellular-level properties and tissue-level outcomes when biological experiments are performed at a single scale only. To overcome this difficulty, we develop a multi-scale mathematical model which provides a clear framework to explore these connections across biological scales. Starting with an individual-based mechanical model of cell movement, we subsequently derive a novel coarse-grained system of partial differential equations governing the evolution of the cell density due to heterogeneous cellular properties. We demonstrate that solutions of the individual-based model converge to numerical solutions of the coarse-grained model, for both slowly-varying-in-space and rapidly-varying-in-space cellular properties. We discuss applications of the model, such as determining relative cellular-level properties and an interpretation of data from a breast cancer detection experiment.

The impact of short- and long-range perception on population movements

Navigation of cells and organisms is typically achieved by detecting and processing orienteering cues. Occasionally, a cue may be assessed over a much larger range than the individual's body size, as in visual scanning for landmarks. In this paper we formulate models that account for orientation in response to short- or long-range cue evaluation. Starting from an underlying random walk movement model, where a generic cue is evaluated locally or nonlocally to determine a preferred direction, we state corresponding macroscopic partial differential equations to describe population movements. Under certain approximations, these models reduce to well-known local and nonlocal biological transport equations, including those of Keller-Segel type. We consider a case-study application: "hilltopping" in Lepidoptera and other insects, a phenomenon in which populations accumulate at summits to improve encounter/mating rates. Nonlocal responses are shown to efficiently filter out the natural noisiness (or roughness) of typical landscapes and allow the population to preferentially accumulate at a subset of hilltopping locations, in line with field studies. Moreover, according to the timescale of movement, optimal responses may occur for different perceptual ranges.

The invasion speed of cell migration models with realistic cell cycle time distributions

Cell proliferation is typically incorporated into stochastic mathematical models of cell migration by assuming that cell divisions occur after an exponentially distributed waiting time. Experimental observations, however, show that this assumption is often far from the real cell cycle time distribution (CCTD). Recent studies have suggested an alternative approach to modelling cell proliferation based on a multi-stage representation of the CCTD. In this paper we investigate the connection between the CCTD and the speed of the collective invasion. We first state a result for a general CCTD, which allows the computation of the invasion speed using the Laplace transform of the CCTD. We use this to deduce the range of speeds for the general case. We then focus on the more realistic case of multi-stage models, using both a stochastic agent-based model and a set of reaction-diffusion equations for the cells' average density. By studying the corresponding travelling wave solutions, we obtain an analytical expression for the speed of invasion for a general N-stage model with identical transition rates, in which case the resulting cell cycle times are Erlang distributed. We show that, for a general N-stage model, the Erlang distribution and the exponential distribution lead to the minimum and maximum invasion speed, respectively. This result allows us to determine the range of possible invasion speeds in terms of the average proliferation time for any multi-stage model.

Spatial Moment Description of Birth-Death-Movement Processes Incorporating the Effects of Crowding and Obstacles

Birth-death-movement processes, modulated by interactions between individuals, are fundamental to many cell biology processes. A key feature of the movement of cells within in vivo environments is the interactions between motile cells and stationary obstacles. Here we propose a multi-species model of individual-level motility, proliferation and death. This model is a spatial birth-death-movement stochastic process, a class of individual-based model (IBM) that is amenable to mathematical analysis. We present the IBM in a general multi-species framework and then focus on the case of a population of motile, proliferative agents in an environment populated by stationary, non-proliferative obstacles. To analyse the IBM, we derive a system of spatial moment equations governing the evolution of the density of agents and the density of pairs of agents. This approach avoids making the usual mean-field assumption so that our models can be used to study the formation of spatial structure, such as clustering and aggregation, and to understand how spatial structure influences population-level outcomes. Overall the spatial moment model provides a reasonably accurate prediction of the system dynamics, including important effects such as how varying the properties of the obstacles leads to different spatial patterns in the population of agents.

A Brownian dynamics tumor progression simulator with application to glioblastoma

Tumor progression modeling offers the potential to predict tumor-spreading behavior to improve prognostic accuracy and guide therapy development. Common simulation methods include continuous reaction-diffusion (RD) approaches that capture mean spatio-temporal tumor spreading behavior and discrete agent-based (AB) approaches which capture individual cell events such as proliferation or migration. The brain cancer glioblastoma (GBM) is especially appropriate for such proliferation-migration modeling approaches because tumor cells seldom metastasize outside of the central nervous system and cells are both highly proliferative and migratory. In glioblastoma research, current RD estimates of proliferation and migration parameters are derived from computed tomography or magnetic resonance images. However, these estimates of glioblastoma cell migration rates, modeled as a diffusion coefficient, are approximately 1-2 orders of magnitude larger than single-cell measurements in animal models of this disease. To identify possible sources for this discrepancy, we evaluated the fundamental RD simulation assumptions that cells are point-like structures that can overlap. To give cells physical size (~10 μm), we used a Brownian dynamics approach that simulates individual single-cell diffusive migration, growth, and proliferation activity via a gridless, off-lattice, AB method where cells can be prohibited from overlapping each other. We found that for realistic single-cell parameter growth and migration rates, a non-overlapping model gives rise to a jammed configuration in the center of the tumor and a biased outward diffusion of cells in the tumor periphery, creating a quasi-ballistic advancing tumor front. The simulations demonstrate that a fast-progressing tumor can result from minimally diffusive cells, but at a rate that is still dependent on single-cell diffusive migration rates. Thus, modeling with the assumption of physically-grounded volume conservation can account for the apparent discrepancy between estimated and measured diffusion of GBM cells and provide a new theoretical framework that naturally links single-cell growth and migration dynamics to tumor-level progression.

Understanding interactions between populations: Individual based modelling and quantification using pair correlation functions

Understanding the underlying mechanisms that produce the huge variety of swarming and aggregation patterns in animals and cells is fundamental in ecology, developmental biology, and regenerative medicine, to name but a few examples. Depending upon the nature of the interactions between individuals (cells or animals), a variety of different large-scale spatial patterns can be observed in their distribution; examples include cell aggregates, stripes of different coloured skin cells, etc. For the case where all individuals are of the same type (i.e., all interactions are alike), a considerable literature already exists on how the collective organisation depends on the inter-individual interactions. Here, we focus on the less studied case where there are two different types of individuals present. Whilst a number of continuum models of this scenario exist, it can be difficult to compare these models to experimental data, since real cells and animals are discrete. In order to overcome this problem, we develop an agent-based model to simulate some archetypal mechanisms involving attraction and repulsion. However, with this approach (as with experiments), each realisation of the model is different, due to stochastic effects. In order to make useful comparisons between simulations and experimental data, we need to identify the robust features of the spatial distributions of the two species which persist over many realisations of the model (for example, the size of aggregates, degree of segregation or intermixing of the two species). In some cases, it is possible to do this by simple visual inspection. In others, the features of the pattern are not so clear to the unaided eye. In this paper, we introduce a pair correlation function (PCF), which allows us to analyse multi-species spatial distributions quantitatively. We show how the differing strengths of inter-individual attraction and repulsion between species give rise to different spatial patterns, and how the PCF can be used to quantify these differences, even when it might be impossible to recognise them visually.

A space-jump derivation for non-local models of cell-cell adhesion and non-local chemotaxis

Cellular adhesion provides one of the fundamental forms of biological interaction between cells and their surroundings, yet the continuum modelling of cellular adhesion has remained mathematically challenging. In 2006, Armstrong et al. proposed a mathematical model in the form of an integro-partial differential equation. Although successful in applications, a derivation from an underlying stochastic random walk has remained elusive. In this work we develop a framework by which non-local models can be derived from a space-jump process. We show how the notions of motility and a cell polarization vector can be naturally included. With this derivation we are able to include microscopic biological properties into the model. We show that particular choices yield the original Armstrong model, while others lead to more general models, including a doubly non-local adhesion model and non-local chemotaxis models. Finally, we use random walk simulations to confirm that the corresponding continuum model represents the mean field behaviour of the stochastic random walk.

Continuum approximations for lattice-free multi-species models of collective cell migration

Cell migration within tissues involves the interaction of many cells from distinct subpopulations. In this work, we present a discrete model of collective cell migration where the motion of individual cells is driven by random forces, short range repulsion forces to mimic crowding, and longer range attraction forces to mimic adhesion. This discrete model can be used to simulate a population of cells that is composed of K ≥ 1 distinct subpopulations. To analyse the discrete model we formulate a hierarchy of moment equations that describe the spatial evolution of the density of agents, pairs of agents, triplets of agents, and so forth. To solve the hierarchy of moment equations we introduce two forms of closure: (i) the mean field approximation, which effectively assumes that the distributions of individual agents are independent; and (ii) a moment dynamics description that is based on the Kirkwood superposition approximation. The moment dynamics description provides an approximate way of incorporating spatial patterns, such as agent clustering, into the continuum description. Comparing the performance of the two continuum descriptions confirms that both perform well when adhesive forces are sufficiently weak. In contrast, the moment dynamics description outperforms the mean field model when adhesive forces are sufficiently large. This is a first attempt to provide an accurate continuum description of a lattice-free, multi-species model of collective cell migration.

An individual-based model for collective cancer cell migration explains speed dynamics and phenotype variability in response to growth factors

Collective cell migration is a common phenotype in epithelial cancers, which is associated with tumor cell metastasis and poor patient survival. However, the interplay between physiologically relevant pro-migratory stimuli and the underlying mechanical cell–cell interactions are poorly understood. We investigated the migratory behavior of different collectively migrating non-small cell lung cancer cell lines in response to motogenic growth factors (e.g. epidermal growth factor) or clinically relevant small compound inhibitors. Depending on the treatment, we observed distinct behaviors in a classical lateral migration assay involving traveling fronts, finger-shapes or the development of cellular bridges. Particle image velocimetry analysis revealed characteristic speed dynamics (evolution of the average speed of all cells in a frame) in all experiments exhibiting initial acceleration and subsequent deceleration of the cell populations. To better understand the mechanical properties of individual cells leading to the observed speed dynamics and the phenotypic differences we developed a mathematical model based on a Langevin approach. This model describes intercellular forces, random motility, and stimulation of active migration by mechanical interaction between cells. Simulations show that the model is able to reproduce the characteristic spatio-temporal speed distributions as well as most migratory phenotypes of the studied cell lines. A specific strength of the proposed model is that it identifies a small set of mechanical features necessary to explain all phenotypic and dynamical features of the migratory response of non-small cell lung cancer cells to chemical stimulation/inhibition. Furthermore, all processes included in the model can be associated with potential molecular components, and are therefore amenable to experimental validation. Thus, the presented mathematical model may help to predict which mechanical aspects involved in non-small cell lung cancer cell migration are affected by the respective therapeutic treatment.

In many cancers, spreading and the formation of metastasis involve the coordinated migration of many cells. An interdisciplinary team of researchers from Heidelberg and Frankfurt studied the collective movement of cultured lung cancer cells subject to chemical stimulation. Based on extensive data analysis a mathematical model was developed to explain the variety of migration behaviors observed under different treatments. The model describes the mechanics of compression, stretch, cell elasticity and force-regulated active motion—which in sum lead to coordination within large cell groups. Simulations demonstrate how these mechanical features affect cell coordination and collective behavior. In tests of potential medical treatment strategies, the model can be used to predict the effects of the drug on specific mechanical properties of single cells.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Insulitis in Human Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an auto-immune disease characterized by the selective destruction of the insulin secreting beta cells in the pancreas during an inflammatory phase known as insulitis. Patients with T1D are typically dependent on the administration of externally provided insulin in order to manage blood glucose levels. Whilst technological developments have significantly improved both the life expectancy and quality of life of these patients, an understanding of the mechanisms of the disease remains elusive. Animal models, such as the NOD mouse model, have been widely used to probe the process of insulitis, but there exist very few data from humans studied at disease onset. In this manuscript, we employ data from human pancreases collected close to the onset of T1D and propose a spatio-temporal computational model for the progression of insulitis in human T1D, with particular focus on the mechanisms underlying the development of insulitis in pancreatic islets. This framework allows us to investigate how the time-course of insulitis progression is affected by altering key parameters, such as the number of the CD20+ B cells present in the inflammatory infiltrate, which has recently been proposed to influence the aggressiveness of the disease. Through the analysis of repeated simulations of our stochastic model, which track the number of beta cells within an islet, we find that increased numbers of B cells in the peri-islet space lead to faster destruction of the beta cells. We also find that the balance between the degradation and repair of the basement membrane surrounding the islet is a critical component in governing the overall destruction rate of the beta cells and their remaining number. Our model provides a framework for continued and improved spatio-temporal modeling of human T1D.

Filling the gaps: A robust description of adhesive birth-death-movement processes

Existing continuum descriptions of discrete adhesive birth-death-movement processes provide accurate predictions of the average discrete behavior for limited parameter regimes. Here we present an alternative continuum description in terms of the dynamics of groups of contiguous occupied and vacant lattice sites. Our method provides more accurate predictions, is valid in parameter regimes that could not be described by previous continuum descriptions, and provides information about the spatial clustering of occupied sites. Furthermore, we present a simple analytic approximation of the spatial clustering of occupied sites at late time, when the system reaches its steady-state configuration.

Spatial moment dynamics for collective cell movement incorporating a neighbour-dependent directional bias

The ability of cells to undergo collective movement plays a fundamental role in tissue repair, development and cancer. Interactions occurring at the level of individual cells may lead to the development of spatial structure which will affect the dynamics of migrating cells at a population level. Models that try to predict population-level behaviour often take a mean-field approach, which assumes that individuals interact with one another in proportion to their average density and ignores the presence of any small-scale spatial structure. In this work, we develop a lattice-free individual-based model (IBM) that uses random walk theory to model the stochastic interactions occurring at the scale of individual migrating cells. We incorporate a mechanism for local directional bias such that an individual's direction of movement is dependent on the degree of cell crowding in its neighbourhood. As an alternative to the mean-field approach, we also employ spatial moment theory to develop a population-level model which accounts for spatial structure and predicts how these individual-level interactions propagate to the scale of the whole population. The IBM is used to derive an equation for dynamics of the second spatial moment (the average density of pairs of cells) which incorporates the neighbour-dependent directional bias, and we solve this numerically for a spatially homogeneous case.

Spatial structure arising from neighbour-dependent bias in collective cell movement

Mathematical models of collective cell movement often neglect the effects of spatial structure, such as clustering, on the population dynamics. Typically, they assume that individuals interact with one another in proportion to their average density (the mean-field assumption) which means that cell-cell interactions occurring over short spatial ranges are not accounted for. However, in vitro cell culture studies have shown that spatial correlations can play an important role in determining collective behaviour. Here, we take a combined experimental and modelling approach to explore how individual-level interactions give rise to spatial structure in a moving cell population. Using imaging data from in vitro experiments, we quantify the extent of spatial structure in a population of 3T3 fibroblast cells. To understand how this spatial structure arises, we develop a lattice-free individual-based model (IBM) and simulate cell movement in two spatial dimensions. Our model allows an individual's direction of movement to be affected by interactions with other cells in its neighbourhood, providing insights into how directional bias generates spatial structure. We consider how this behaviour scales up to the population level by using the IBM to derive a continuum description in terms of the dynamics of spatial moments. In particular, we account for spatial correlations between cells by considering dynamics of the second spatial moment (the average density of pairs of cells). Our numerical results suggest that the moment dynamics description can provide a good approximation to averaged simulation results from the underlying IBM. Using our in vitro data, we estimate parameters for the model and show that it can generate similar spatial structure to that observed in a 3T3 fibroblast cell population.

Models, measurement and inference in epithelial tissue dynamics

The majority of solid tumours arise in epithelia and therefore much research effort has gone into investigating the growth, renewal and regulation of these tissues. Here we review different mathematical and computational approaches that have been used to model epithelia. We compare different models and describe future challenges that need to be overcome in order to fully exploit new data which present, for the first time, the real possibility for detailed model validation and comparison.

Incorporating pushing in exclusion-process models of cell migration

The macroscale movement behavior of a wide range of isolated migrating cells has been well characterized experimentally. Recently, attention has turned to understanding the behavior of cells in crowded environments. In such scenarios it is possible for cells to interact, inducing neighboring cells to move in order to make room for their own movements or progeny. Although the behavior of interacting cells has been modeled extensively through volume-exclusion processes, few models, thus far, have explicitly accounted for the ability of cells to actively displace each other in order to create space for themselves. In this work we consider both on- and off-lattice volume-exclusion position-jump processes in which cells are explicitly allowed to induce movements in their near neighbors in order to create space for themselves to move or proliferate into. We refer to this behavior as pushing. From these simple individual-level representations we derive continuum partial differential equations for the average occupancy of the domain. We find that, for limited amounts of pushing, comparison between the averaged individual-level simulations and the population-level model is nearly as good as in the scenario without pushing. Interestingly, we find that, in the on-lattice case, the diffusion coefficient of the population-level model is increased by pushing, whereas, for the particular off-lattice model that we investigate, the diffusion coefficient is reduced. We conclude, therefore, that it is important to consider carefully the appropriate individual-level model to use when representing complex cell-cell interactions such as pushing.