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Phillips K, Callaghan B, Rajagopalan V, Akram F, Newburger JW, Kasparian NA. Neuroimaging and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes Among Individuals With Complex Congenital Heart Disease: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol 2023; 82:2225-2245. [PMID: 38030353 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2023.09.824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Although neuroimaging advances have deepened our understanding of brain health in individuals with congenital heart disease (CHD), it is less clear how neuroimaging findings relate to neurodevelopmental and mental health outcomes across the lifespan. We systematically synthesized and critically evaluated evidence on associations between neuroimaging and neurodevelopmental, neurocognitive, psychiatric, or behavioral outcomes among individuals with transposition of great arteries or single-ventricle CHD (Protocol CRD42021229617). Six databases were searched and 45 papers from 25 unique studies were identified. Structural brain injury was generally linked to poorer neurodevelopment in infancy. Brain volumes and microstructural and functional brain changes appear linked to neurocognitive outcomes, including deficits in attention, learning, memory, and executive function in children and adolescents. Fetal neuroimaging studies were limited. Four papers investigated psychiatric outcomes; none found associations with neuroimaging. Multicenter, longitudinal studies incorporating functional neuroimaging and mental health outcomes are much-needed to inform early neuroprotective and therapeutic strategies in CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn Phillips
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Bridget Callaghan
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Vidya Rajagopalan
- Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Los Angeles and Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Farah Akram
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jane W Newburger
- Department of Cardiology, Boston Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nadine A Kasparian
- Heart and Mind Wellbeing Center, Heart Institute and the Division of Behavioral Medicine and Clinical Psychology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
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Ramanan S, Gopalakrishnan A, Sundaram S, Varma RP, Gopakumar D, Viswam VK, Satheesan R, Baruah SD, Menon S, Dharan BS. Paediatric quality of life in toddlers and children who underwent arterial switch operation beyond early neonatal period. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2023; 64:ezad321. [PMID: 37725365 DOI: 10.1093/ejcts/ezad321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of life (QOL) of children who underwent the arterial switch operation (ASO) for Transposition of Great Arteries in our population and, specifically, to explore early modifiable factors and the influence of parental and socioeconomic factors on the QOL of these children. METHODS Cross-sectional study using Paediatric Quality of Life Inventory™ 3.0 Cardiac Module was carried out on 3- to 12-year-old children who had undergone ASO between the years 2012-2018. Socioeconomic status was calculated using the modified Kuppuswamy scale (2019). Other clinical factors with possible bearing on the outcome were also analysed. RESULTS Immediate survival after surgery was 196 out of 208 (94.2%) with an attrition of 19 patients (9.6%) over the follow-up period. Most surviving children (98.9%) had started formal schooling in age-appropriate classes. Two children had severe neuromotor impairment. The median cumulative health-related QOL score of the children was 97.9 (interquartile range 4.2) at 5.6 ± 1.27 years of life. The median scores each of the health-related QOL parameters, viz, heart problem symptoms, treatment compliance, perceived physical appearance, treatment-related anxiety, cognitive problems, and communication was 100 with negative skewing. CONCLUSIONS Excellent QOL was observed in most children after ASO with the median total paediatric QOL scores in all domains of 97.9. Social factors did not show a statistically significant influence on the QOL parameters in the current cohort. The gradually declining trend across the age groups emphasizes the need for continued follow-up for early identification of possible correctable factors and initiating intervention to ensure good QOL into teenage and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sowmya Ramanan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Arun Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Cardiology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Soumya Sundaram
- Comprehensive Care Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Ravi Prasad Varma
- Achutha Menon Center for Health Sciences, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Deepak Gopakumar
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Vinitha K Viswam
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Rahul Satheesan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Sudip Dutta Baruah
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Sabarinath Menon
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Baiju S Dharan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
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Socio-demographic parameters and non-cardiac comorbidity related to self-perceived quality of life in young adults after neonatal arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries. Heart Vessels 2023; 38:570-580. [PMID: 36305895 PMCID: PMC9986210 DOI: 10.1007/s00380-022-02188-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Evaluating the relation of non-cardiac comorbidity and socio-demographic factors to physical and mental health-related quality of life (QOL) which has been partially found at elevated risk in young adults after neonatal arterial switch operation (ASO) for transposition of the great arteries (TGA). In a prospective reassessment study, results of 92 unselected young adults (22.8 ± 2.6 years) having undergone evaluation of QOL (SF-36) were related to non-cardiac comorbidity with special respect to neurologic and psychiatric comorbidity and to socio-demographic parameters. Neurologic (14%) contrary to psychiatric comorbidities (6.5%) were more frequent than in the general population. The educational level was higher, the rate of unemployment was double as high compared to the average German population. Significant inverse relations (p = 0.006 to 0.033) existed between physical health domains (physical functioning and general health perception) and non-cardiac, neurologic, and psychiatric comorbidity, as well as correlations between the latter domains and socio-economic status, educational level, and worse employment status (Spearman 0.22-0.41, p < 0.0001 to 0.036). Mental health domains (vitality, social functioning, psychical health) were significantly inversely related with neurologic and psychiatric comorbidity (p = 0.002 to 0.048) and correlated with higher educational level (Spearman 0.25, p = 0.019). Neurologic and psychiatric comorbidities and socio-demographic parameters are significant risk factors for a reduced QOL concerning physical and mental health in young adults with TGA after ASO. Standardized QOL measurement should be part of routine screening programs to detect subclinical physical, neurodevelopmental, and psychosocial comorbidity.
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Lebherz C, Frick M, Panse J, Wienstroer P, Brehmer K, Kerst G, Marx N, Mathiak K, Hövels-Gürich H. Anxiety and Depression in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease. Front Pediatr 2022; 10:906385. [PMID: 35799689 PMCID: PMC9253420 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2022.906385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Anxiety and depression can worsen outcome in patients with heart disease. We elucidate the prevalence of anxiety and depression in a cohort of adults with congenital heart disease (ACHD). MATERIALS AND METHODS Prospective screening for anxiety or depression was performed in 204 consecutive patients of the outpatient clinic of our tertiary care center using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) questionnaire and the distress thermometer (DT) as a potential ultra-short screening test. Functional data were assessed at liberty of the responsible physician. HADS scores ≥ 8 were considered doubtful and scores ≥ 11 as confirmed cases of anxiety or depression, respectively. HADS results were compared with a historical group of 100 patients with non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) as well as German reference values from the literature. RESULTS Patients from the ACHD cohort were 28 ± 10 years old (mean ± SD, 54% male), 34% had a simple, 51% a moderate, including 52 patients with transposition of the great arteries after arterial switch operation, and 15% a heart defect of severe complexity. Prevalence of depression in ACHD was comparable to the German normal population (5.9% ACHD vs. 5.4% control). In contrast, prevalence of anxiety was higher than expected from reference values (12.7% ACHD vs. 5.6% control). There was a positive association between psychological distress and NYHA class [anxiety: OR 2.67 (95% CI, 1.50-4.76) p = 0.001; depression: OR 2.93 (95% CI, 1.60-5.35) p = 0.0005], but not with age, gender, or heart defect severity. Percentages of patients with ACHD with anxiety were significantly higher than in a cohort of patients with indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) but comparable to those with aggressive NHL (HADS-A ≥ 11: ACHD 12.7%, indolent NHL 2.2%, aggressive NHL 13.2%; p = 0.037 ACHD vs. indolent NHL; p = 0.929 ACHD vs. aggressive NHL). The distress thermometer screening test had only a fair discriminatory ability (AUC 0.708; p = 0.002) and is therefore of limited usability. CONCLUSION Adults with congenital heart disease exhibit an increased risk for anxiety disorders independently of the severity of the underlying heart defect. Anxiety prevalence was comparable to a historical cohort of patients with aggressive NHL underlining the importance of a routine screening for psychosocial distress in adults with congenital heart disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Lebherz
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael Frick
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jens Panse
- Department of Oncology, Hematology, Hemostaseology and Stem Cell Transplantation, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany.,Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Düesseldorf (CIO-ABCD), Aachen, Germany
| | - Philipp Wienstroer
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Katrin Brehmer
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany.,Department of Cardiology, DIAK Hospital, Schwäbisch Hall, Germany
| | - Gunter Kerst
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Nikolaus Marx
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Klaus Mathiak
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hedwig Hövels-Gürich
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
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Hövels-Gürich HH, Lebherz C, Korte B, Vazquez-Jimenez JF, Marx N, Kerst G, Frick M. NYHA class and cardiopulmonary exercise capacity impact self-rated health-related quality of life in young adults after arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CARDIOLOGY CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcchd.2022.100330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Ramanan S, Sundaram S, Gopalakrishnan A, Anija DV, Sandhya P, Jose DS, Baruah SD, Menon S, Dharan BS. Intermediate-term neurodevelopmental outcomes and quality of life after arterial switch operation beyond early neonatal period. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2021; 60:1428-1436. [PMID: 34151942 DOI: 10.1093/ejcts/ezab223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The study objective was to evaluate the cardiac, neurodevelopmental, psycho-social and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) outcomes of children who underwent an arterial switch operation (ASO). METHODS Children who underwent ASO were evaluated on follow-up at 3-5 years with cardiovascular, neurodevelopmental and HRQOL assessment using validated tools. Children with developmental delay, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, neuromotor and speech and language impairment were considered to have neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD). The impact of socioeconomic status (Kuppuswamy classification), perioperative cardiac, nutritional and psycho-social factors on outcomes was analysed. RESULTS There were 61 (89.7%) survivors at a mean follow-up of 50.9 ± 7.6 months. The median age at surgery was 41 days (22-74.5). One-third of patients had growth restriction. Two children had residual cardiovascular lesions requiring intervention. The mean HRQOL score was >90 in all scales of the Paediatric Quality of Life Inventory™ 3.0 Cardiac Module. Neurological abnormalities were seen in 19 patients (31.1%) of whom 17 (27.9%) patients had NDD and 12 had developmental delay. Speech and language impairment, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and neuromotor impairment were found in 16.4%, 3.3% and 6.7% patients, respectively. On multivariate analysis, increasing time to lactate normalization and low socioeconomic status were associated with developmental delay after ASO. CONCLUSIONS While intermediate-term cardiac outcomes and HRQOL after ASO were fairly satisfactory, NDD was identified in one-fourth of these children. Increasing time to lactate normalization after ASO and low socioeconomic status were associated with suboptimal intermediate neurodevelopment outcomes after ASO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sowmya Ramanan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Soumya Sundaram
- Comprehensive Care Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Arun Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Cardiology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - D V Anija
- Department of Cardiology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - P Sandhya
- Comprehensive Care Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Dhiya Susan Jose
- Comprehensive Care Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Sudip Dutta Baruah
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Sabarinath Menon
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Baiju S Dharan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
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Morfaw F, Leenus A, Mbuagbaw L, Anderson LN, Dillenburg R, Thabane L. Outcomes after corrective surgery for congenital dextro-transposition of the arteries using the arterial switch technique: a scoping systematic review. Syst Rev 2020; 9:231. [PMID: 33028389 PMCID: PMC7542944 DOI: 10.1186/s13643-020-01487-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dextro-transposition of the great arteries (D-TGA) is the most frequent cyanotic congenital heart pathology in neonates. Surgical correction of this condition is possible using the arterial switch operation (ASO) which was first performed by Jatene in 1975. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to summarise the evidence on short- (less than 1 year), medium- (1-20 years), and long-term (more than 20 years) outcomes of children with D-TGA treated with the ASO. The primary outcome was survival. Secondary outcomes were freedom from cardiac reoperations, occurrence of aortic insufficiency, pulmonary stenosis, coronary artery anomalies, neuropsychological development problems and quality of life. METHODS We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS, and reference lists of included articles for studies reporting outcomes after ASO for D-TGA. Screening, data extraction and risk of bias assessment were done independently by two reviewers. We pooled data using a random-effects meta-analysis of proportions and, where not possible, outcomes were synthesized narratively. We used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system to assess the certainty of the evidence for each outcome. MAIN RESULTS Following ASO for TGA, short-term survival was 92.0% (95% CI 91.0-93.0%; I2 = 85.8%, 151 studies, 30,186 participants; moderate certainty evidence). Medium-term survival was 90.0% (95% CI 89.0-91.0%; I2 = 84.3%, 133 studies; 23,686 participants, moderate certainty evidence), while long-term survival was 87.0% (95% CI 80.0-92.0 %; I2 = 84.5%, 4 studies, 933 participants, very low certainty evidence). Evaluation of the different secondary outcomes also showed satisfactory results in the short, medium and long term. Subgroup analysis suggests slightly higher survival following ASO for TGA in the second surgical era (1998 to 2018) than in the first surgical era (1975 to 1997) in the short and medium term [93.0% (95% CI 92.0-94.0) vs 90.0% (95% CI 89.0-92.0) and 93.0% (95% CI 91.0-94.0) vs 88.0% (87.0-90.0%) respectively] but not in the long term [81.0% (95% CI 76.0-86.0%) vs 89.0% (80.0-95.0%)]. CONCLUSIONS Pooled data from many sources suggests that the ASO for D-TGA leads to high rates of survival in the short, medium, and long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick Morfaw
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicines and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroon.,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Bamenda, Bamenda, Cameroon
| | - Alvin Leenus
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Lawrence Mbuagbaw
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada. .,Biostatistics Unit/FSORC, St Joseph Healthcare-Hamilton, 50 Charlton Avenue East, 3rd Floor Martha Wing, Room H321, Hamilton, ON, L8N 4A6, Canada. .,Centre for Development of Best Practices in Health, Yaoundé Central Hospital, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
| | - Laura N Anderson
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Rejane Dillenburg
- Departments of Pediatrics and Anesthesia, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lehana Thabane
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Biostatistics Unit/FSORC, St Joseph Healthcare-Hamilton, 50 Charlton Avenue East, 3rd Floor Martha Wing, Room H321, Hamilton, ON, L8N 4A6, Canada.,Departments of Pediatrics and Anesthesia, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Arterial Switch Operation: Operative Approach and Outcomes. Ann Thorac Surg 2019; 107:302-310. [DOI: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 05/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Yagiela LM, Harper FW, Meert KL. Reframing pediatric cardiac intensive care outcomes: The importance of the family and the role of pediatric medical traumatic stress. PROGRESS IN PEDIATRIC CARDIOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ppedcard.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Davies RR. The persistence of cognitive deficits into adulthood after the arterial switch procedure: Can we change things? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2017. [PMID: 28645827 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2017.05.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan R Davies
- Nemours Cardiac Center, A. I. duPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington, De; Department of Surgery, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pa.
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11
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Licht DJ. "The more things change…": The challenges ahead. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2017. [PMID: 28623100 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2017.04.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Licht
- June and Steve Wolfson Laboratory for Clinical and Biomedical Optics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.
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