Effects of photoperiod on energy budgets and thermogenesis in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)

Role of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 in behavioral thermoregulation of the Mongolian gerbil Meriones unguiculatus

Ambient temperature considerably affects the physiology and behavior of mammals. Thermosensory and thermoregulatory abilities play an important role in the response to changing ambient temperature in endotherms. However, the molecular mechanisms of behavioral thermoregulation remain poorly understood. Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) is activated by changes in ambient temperature and is involved in acute thermoregulation. Here, we aimed to determine whether TRPV1 is involved in behavioral thermoregulation in wild rodents by conducting 2 experiments. In the first, 42 adult Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus; 14 per treatment) were randomly assigned to 3 housing temperatures (4, 23, and 36°C) for 4 weeks. In the second, 20 gerbils (10 per treatment) were randomly injected with capsaicin (TRPV1 agonist) or AMG517 (TRPV1 antagonist). The results showed a significant decrease in food intake and non-shivering thermogenesis in the gerbils housed at 36°C. Additionally, there was a significant increase in the preference of gerbils housed at 4°C to low temperatures. The expression of TRPV1 protein in the brown adipose tissue (BAT) and liver was significantly positively correlated with that of protein kinase A (PKA). The expression of TRPV1 and PKA proteins in the BAT was positively correlated with the temperature preference of the gerbils. The gerbils injected with capsaicin preferred significantly lower temperatures than the control group gerbils. These findings suggest that TRPV1 and PKA are involved in behavioral thermoregulation in Mongolian gerbils.

Cecal microbial transplantation attenuates hyperthyroid-induced thermogenesis in Mongolian gerbils

Endothermic mammals have a high energy cost to maintain a stable and high body temperature (T_b , around 37°C). Thyroid hormones are a major regulator for energy metabolism and T_b . The gut microbiota is involved in modulating host energy metabolism. However, whether the interaction between the gut microbiota and thyroid hormones is involved in metabolic and thermal regulations is unclear. We hypothesized that thyroid hormones via an interaction with gut microbiota orchestrate host thermogenesis and T_b . l-thyroxine-induced hyperthyroid Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) increased resting metabolic rate (RMR) and T_b , whereas Methimazole-induced hypothyroid animals decreased RMR. Both hypothyroid and hyperthyroid animals differed significantly in faecal bacterial community. Hyperthyroidism increased the relative abundance of pathogenic bacteria, such as Helicobacter and Rikenella, and decreased abundance of beneficial bacteria Butyricimonas and Parabacteroides, accompanied by reduced total bile acids and short-chain fatty acids. Furthermore, the hyperthyroid gerbils transplanted with the microbiota from control donors increased type 2 deiodinase (DIO2) expression in the liver and showed a greater rate of decline of both serum T3 and T4 levels and, consequently, a more rapid recovery of normal RMR and T_b . These findings indicate that thyroid hormones regulate thermogenesis depending on gut microbiota and colonization with normal microbiota by caecal microbial transplantation attenuates hyperthyroid-induced thermogenesis. This work reveals the functional consequences of the gut microbiota-thyroid axis in controlling host metabolic physiology and T_b in endotherms.

The responses of metabolic rate and neuropeptides to food deprivation in striped hamsters (Cricetulus barabensis) with different basal metabolic rate

High basal metabolic rate (BMR) is related to a powerful metabolic engine even under food shortage, which can lead to high levels of daily energy expenditure and requires more energy for maintenance in small mammals. To test the hypothesis that animals with different BMR levels respond differently to food shortage, we compared the changes in metabolism, morphology, and gene expression in response to food deprivation (FD) in male-striped hamsters (Cricetulus barabensis) with low (L)- or high (H)-BMR levels. After 36 hr of FD, energy expenditure, metabolic rate (MR), mass of body composition, and leptin and agouti-related peptide gene expressions in the white adipose tissues and the hypothalamus, respectively, decreased significantly in hamsters. The energy expenditure of H-BMR hamsters was reduced more than that of L-BMR hamsters after 36 hr of FD. Furthermore, MR was significantly reduced by FD, and that of the H-BMR group decreased more than that of the L-BMR group during the daytime. Therefore, our data suggest that striped hamsters with different BMR display different responses to variations in food availability. During FD, MR in H-BMR hamsters was more flexible than that in L-BMR animals and L-BMR hamsters could not reduce their MR any lower.

Thyroid hormones mediate metabolic rate and oxidative, anti-oxidative balance at different temperatures in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)

Oxidative damage is a potential physiological cost of thermoregulation during seasonal adjustments to air temperature (T_a) in small mammals. Here, we hypothesized that T_a affects serum thyroid hormone levels and these hormones can mediate the changes in metabolic rate and oxidative damage. Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) were acclimated at different T_as (5 °C, 23 °C and 37 °C) for 3 weeks. Serum tri-iodothyronine (T3) levels increased at 5 °C but decreased at 37 °C compared to the control (23 °C). Protein carbonyls increased in liver at 37 °C compared with control, however, lipid damage (malonaldehyde, MDA) in both serum and liver was unrelated to T_a. After the effects of different T_as on thyroid hormone levels and oxidative damage markers were determined, we further investigate whether thyroid hormones mediated metabolic rate and oxidative damage. Another set of gerbils received 0.0036% L-thyroxin (hyperthyroid), 0.04% Methylimazol (hypothyroid) or water (control). Hypothyroid group showed a 34% reduction in resting metabolic rate (RMR) also 42% and 26% increases in MDA and liver protein carbonyl respectively, whereas hyperthyroid group had higher RMR, liver mass and superoxide dismutase (SOD) compared to control. Serum T3 or T3/T4 levels were correlated positively with RMR, liver mass, and SOD, but negatively with MDA and uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2). We concluded that high T_a induced hypothyroidism, decreased RMR and increased oxidative damage, whereas low T_a induced hyperthyroidism, increased RMR and unchanged oxidative damage. These data supported our hypothesis that thyroid hormones can be a cue to mediate metabolic rate and different aspects of oxidative and antioxidant activities at different T_as.

Comparative analyses of basal rate of metabolism in mammals: data selection does matter

Basal rate of metabolism (BMR) is a physiological parameter that should be measured under strictly defined experimental conditions. In comparative analyses among mammals BMR is widely used as an index of the intensity of the metabolic machinery or as a proxy for energy expenditure. Many databases with BMR values for mammals are available, but the criteria used to select metabolic data as BMR estimates have often varied and the potential effect of this variability has rarely been questioned. We provide a new, expanded BMR database reflecting compliance with standard criteria (resting, postabsorptive state; thermal neutrality; adult, non-reproductive status for females) and examine potential effects of differential selectivity on the results of comparative analyses. The database includes 1739 different entries for 817 species of mammals, compiled from the original sources. It provides information permitting assessment of the validity of each estimate and presents the value closest to a proper BMR for each entry. Using different selection criteria, several alternative data sets were extracted and used in comparative analyses of (i) the scaling of BMR to body mass and (ii) the relationship between brain mass and BMR. It was expected that results would be especially dependent on selection criteria with small sample sizes and with relatively weak relationships. Phylogenetically informed regression (phylogenetic generalized least squares, PGLS) was applied to the alternative data sets for several different clades (Mammalia, Eutheria, Metatheria, or individual orders). For Mammalia, a 'subsampling procedure' was also applied, in which random subsamples of different sample sizes were taken from each original data set and successively analysed. In each case, two data sets with identical sample size and species, but comprising BMR data with different degrees of reliability, were compared. Selection criteria had minor effects on scaling equations computed for large clades (Mammalia, Eutheria, Metatheria), although less-reliable estimates of BMR were generally about 12-20% larger than more-reliable ones. Larger effects were found with more-limited clades, such as sciuromorph rodents. For the relationship between BMR and brain mass the results of comparative analyses were found to depend strongly on the data set used, especially with more-limited, order-level clades. In fact, with small sample sizes (e.g. <100) results often appeared erratic. Subsampling revealed that sample size has a non-linear effect on the probability of a zero slope for a given relationship. Depending on the species included, results could differ dramatically, especially with small sample sizes. Overall, our findings indicate a need for due diligence when selecting BMR estimates and caution regarding results (even if seemingly significant) with small sample sizes.

Effects of random food deprivation and refeeding on energy metabolism, behavior and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression in Apodemus chevrieri

Maintaining adaptive control of behavior and physiology is the main strategy used by animals in responding to changes of food resources. To investigate the effects of random food deprivation (FD) and refeeding on energy metabolism and behavior in Apodemus chevrieri, we acclimated adult males to FD for 4weeks, then refed them ad libitum for 4weeks (FD-Re group). During the period of FD, animals were fed ad libitum for 4 randomly assigned days each week, and deprived of food the other 3days. A control group was fed ad libitum for 8weeks. At 4 and 8weeks we measured body mass, thermogenesis, serum leptin levels, body composition, gastrointestinal tract morphology, behavior and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression. At 4weeks, food intake, gastrointestinal mass, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AgRP) mRNA expressions increased and thermogenesis, leptin levels, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) expressions decreased in FD compared with controls. FD also showed more resting behavior and less activity than the controls on ad libitum day. There were no differences between FD-Re and controls at 8weeks, indicating significant plasticity. These results suggested that animals can compensate for unpredictable reduction in food availability by increasing food intake and reducing energy expended through thermogenesis and activity. Leptin levels, NPY, AgRP, POMC, and CART mRNA levels may also regulate energy metabolism. Significant plasticity in energy metabolism and behavior was shown by A. chevrieri over a short timescale, allowing them to adapt to food shortages in nutritionally unpredictable environments.

Plasticity in food intake, thermogenesis and body mass in the tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) is affected by food restriction and refeeding

Physiological adjustments are important strategies for small mammals in response to variation in food availability. To determine the physiological mechanisms affected by food restriction and refeeding, tree shrews were restricted to 85% of initial food intake for 4 weeks and refedad libitumfor another 4 weeks. Changes in food intake, body mass, thermogenesis, body composition, mitochondrial cytochromecoxidase activity, uncoupling protein-1 content in brown adipose tissue and serum leptin levels were measured. The results showed that body mass, body fat mass and serum leptin levels significantly decreased in food restricted tree shrews, and increased when the restriction ended, showing a short “compensatory growth” rather than over-weight or obesity compared withad libitumcontrols. Resting metabolic rate, non-shivering thermogenesis, brown adipose tissue mass (mg), and uncoupling protein-1 content decreased significantly in response to food restriction, and returned to the control levels after the animals were refedad libitum, while the brown adipose tissue mass (%) and cytochromecoxidase activity remained stable during food restriction and refeeding. Food intake increased shortly after refeeding, which perhaps contributed to the rapid regaining of body mass. These results suggest thatTupaia belangerican adjust the status of its physiology integratively to cope with the lack of food by means of decreasing body mass, thermogenesis and serum leptin levels. Leptin may act as a starvation signal to predominantly mediate the reduction in body mass and energy expenditure.

Role of photoperiod on hormone concentrations and adaptive capacity in tree shrews, Tupaia belangeri

Environmental factors, such as photoperiod and temperature, play an important role in the regulation of an animal's physiology and behavior. In the present study, we examined the effects of short photoperiod (SD, 8L:16D) on body mass as well as on several physiological, hormonal, and biochemical measures indicative of thermogenic capacity, to test our hypothesis that short photoperiod stimulates increases thermogenic capacity and energy intake in tree shrews. At the end, these tree shrews (SD) had a significant higher body mass, energy intake, cytochrome C oxidase (COX) activity and uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) content, serum tri-iodothyronine (T(3)) and thyroxine (T(4)) compared to LD (16L:8D) tree shrews. However, there were no significant differences in serum leptin and melatonin between the two groups. Together, these data suggest tree shrews employ a strategy of maximizing body growth and increasing energy intake in response to cues associated with short photoperiod.

Partial removal of brown adipose tissue enhances humoral immunity in warm-acclimated Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)

Temperate rodent species experience marked seasonal fluctuations in environmental temperatures. High thermoregulatory demands during winter usually weaken immune function. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) plays a crucial role in adaptive thermoregulatory process. Thus, we proposed the hypothesis that BAT might participate in the regulation of seasonal changes in immune function. The present study examined the trade-off between thermoregulation and immune function and the potential role of BAT in regulating seasonal changes in immune function in Mongolian gerbils. Specifically, surgical removal of interscapular BAT (34% of total BAT) was performed in male gerbils, and subsequently acclimated to either warm (23 ± 1 °C) or cold (4 ± 1 °C) conditions. Gerbils were then challenged with innocuous antigens and the immune responses were measured. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) were increased under cold conditions. However, the cost of thermoregulation during cold acclimation did not suppress T-cell mediated immunity and humoral immunity or decrease spleen mass, thymus mass and white blood cells. Partial removal of BAT significantly enhanced humoral immunity in warm-acclimated, but not in cold-acclimated gerbils. T-cell mediated immunity, white blood cells and immune organs were not affected by BAT removal under both warm and cold conditions. Collectively, our results imply that BAT has a suppressive effect on humoral immunity in warm-acclimated gerbils and differential effects of BAT on humoral immunity under different temperatures (e.g., summer and winter) might be benefit to their survival.

Food hoarding and associated neuronal activation in brain reward circuitry in Mongolian gerbils

Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) display food hoarding and thus provide an opportunity to study the neuromechanisms underlying this behavior. In the present study, male gerbils exhibited a bimodal expression of food hoarding behavior-some displayed high levels of food hoarding whereas others virtually lacked this behavior under normal laboratory conditions with free access to food. Food hoarding was found to be associated with an increase in neuronal activation, indicated by Fos immunoreactive (ir) staining, in several brain areas including the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area (VTA), and lateral hypothalamus. Food hoarding was also associated with increases in the number of cells labeled for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH-ir), the rate limiting enzyme for dopamine conversion, and the number of cells co-labeled for TH-ir/Fos-ir in the VTA, suggesting that dopamine in the brain reward circuitry may be involved in food hoarding. Further, we found that 22 h of food deprivation induced food hoarding in some, but not all, males that naturally did not display food hoarding. In these males, however, food hoarding did not increase TH-ir or TH-ir/Fos-ir expression in the VTA. Together, these data indicate that male Mongolian gerbils display diverse phenotypes of food hoarding behavior and that dopamine in the brain reward circuitry may be involved in the control of naturally occurring, but not food deprivation-induced, food hoarding.

Limits to sustainable energy budget during lactation in the striped hamster (Cricetulus barabensis) raising litters of different size

A female animal appears to approach an upper limit to the rate of sustained energy intake/metabolic rate (SusEI/MR) during lactation. However, different species of animals may respond differently to the sustainable limit. Here, we measured energy budget during lactation in female striped hamsters raising litters of natural size (Con), and females whose litter size was manipulated during early lactation to support fewer or more pups (minus pups, MP or plus pups, PP). The striped hamsters significantly decreased their body mass and increased food intake from early to late lactation; and MP females had lower weight loss and food intake than the control and PP females. Litter size of the PP group decreased significantly over the period of lactation, and pups were weaned at a similar weight to that of the controls. MP females supported a significantly lower litter mass throughout lactation compared with the control and PP females, but during late lactation the pups from the MP group were significantly heavier. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) did not differ significantly between the three groups and the gross energy intake during peak lactation was 5.0 ×, 4.2 × and 5.0 × RMR for the control, MP and PP females, respectively. Female striped hamsters reached a plateau in food intake at around 14 g/d during peak lactation, which might signify a limit of SusEI at 5.0 × RMR. However, it was not possible to determine whether the limitation on SusEI was imposed centrally by the capacity of the gastrointestinal tract to process food, peripherally by the capacity of the mammary gland to produce milk, or by the capacity of animals to dissipate heat.

Winter as a nutritional bottleneck for North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum)

North American porcupines are distributed across a wide variety of habitats where they consume many different species of plants. Winter is a nutritional bottleneck for northern populations, because porcupines remain active when environmental demands are high and food quality is low. We used captive porcupines to examine physiological responses to low-quality diets at high energy demands during winter at ambient temperatures as low as -39 degrees C. We did not observe an endogenous pattern of body mass gain or loss when porcupines were fed a low nitrogen diet (1.1% dry matter) ad libitum through winter. Dry matter intake declined from 43.6 to 14.6 g kg(-0.75) d(-1) even though ambient temperatures declined from -3 to -30 degrees C, which indicates a seasonal decrease in metabolic rate. Porcupines consuming white spruce needles maintained digestive efficiency for energy (61%) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (50%). However, low requirements for energy (398 kJ kg(-0.75) d(-1)) and nitrogen (209 mg kg(-0.75) d(-1)) minimized the loss of body mass when intakes were low and plant toxins increased urinary losses of energy and nitrogen. Porcupines were also able to tolerate low intakes of sodium, even when dietary potassium loads were high. Porcupines use a flexible strategy to survive winter: low requirements are combined with a high tolerance for dietary imbalances that minimize the use of body stores when demands exceed supply. However, body stores are rapidly restored when conditions allow. Porcupines posses many physiological abilities similar to specialist herbivores, but retain the ability of a generalist to survive extreme conditions by using a variety of foods.

Plasticity in energy budget and behavior in Swiss mice and striped hamsters under stochastic food deprivation and refeeding

Plasticity is employed to match environmental variability in many animal species, and consequently increases their performance under different environmental conditions. Plasticity in body mass, energy budget, behavioral patterns and gastrointestinal (GI) tract was examined in Swiss mice and striped hamsters (Cricetulus barabensis) acclimated to a stochastic food deprivation (FD) and then an ad libitum refeeding (Re). FD leaded to a significant decrease in body mass on FD days and an increase in food intake on feeding days in both animals. Larger GI tract in size was employed to meet the higher food intake in FD mice and hamsters. Unexpectedly, activity increased significantly on FD days for both animals. Carcass and fat mass decreased significantly in FD hamsters but not in FD mice. This suggested that mice compensated completely for stochastic FD by increasing food intake on feeding days, whereas hamsters by both increasing food intake and mobilizing energy deposition. After 4 weeks of Re, all of above parameters recovered to levels of controls indicating a significant plasticity in both species over a short timescale. Finally, the current study provided a support for the hypothesis that there were species specific responses of plasticity in energy budget and behavioral patterns to unpredictable changes in food availability for non-foraging mice and foraging hamsters.

Seasonal changes in thermogenesis and body mass in wild Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)

Seasonal adjustments in body mass (BM), nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) and several physiological, hormonal, and biochemical markers were measured in wild-trapped Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) from Inner Mongolia, China. Sexual differences were detected in BM, NST, brown adipose tissue (BAT) mass, and mitochondrial protein content. BM and NST in males were higher in winter (January) and spring (May) than in summer (August), and BM of females was also the highest in winter, but NST remained relatively constant throughout the year. Cytochrome c oxidase activity and mitochondrial uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) content in BAT were enhanced in winter in males or females, respectively. Serum leptin concentration was the lowest in winter and positively correlated with BM and body fat mass but was negatively correlated with BAT UCP1 content. These data suggest that wild Mongolian gerbils do not depend on a decrease in BM, but instead increase their thermogenic capacity to cope with cold stress. Leptin may be involved in the seasonal regulation in energy balance and thermogenesis in field Mongolian gerbils.