1
|
Kolkmeyer CA, Zambrano Cardona AM, Gansloßer U. Personality Unleashed: Surveying Correlation of Neuter Status and Social Behaviour in Mixed-Breed Male Dogs across Weight Classes. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:2445. [PMID: 39199978 PMCID: PMC11350830 DOI: 10.3390/ani14162445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2024] [Revised: 08/14/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the behavioural differences between neutered and intact dogs. A total of 230 questionnaires of neutered (n = 115) and intact (n = 115) mixed-breed male dogs were collected. Small, medium, large, and giant dogs were analysed to investigate a possible influence of body size. The results showed neuters were significantly more stressed than intacts (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.001). In terms of stress by influences (such as separation anxiety and anxiety at car rides), neutered small, medium, and large dogs were more stressed than giant dogs (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.05). Neuters were also found to be more aggressive in general (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.04) and more aggressive on the walk (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.02). In addition, personality questionnaires revealed significant differences in all characteristics. Neuters were less emotionally calm (multiple ordinal regression, p = 0.03), less trainable and less sociable (each multiple ordinal regression, p < 0.001). They also scored lower on extraversion (multiple ordinal regression, p = 0.04). These findings highlight the importance of further research into the behavioural effects of neutering dogs, as well as the need for evidence-based guidelines for neutering practices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carina A. Kolkmeyer
- Institut für Zoologie & Evolutionsforschung mit Phyletischem Museum, Ernst-Haeckel-Haus und Biologiedidaktik, Erbertstr. 1, 07743 Jena, Germany;
- Department of Biology, University of Vechta, Driverstrasee 22, 49377 Vechta, Germany
| | - Ana M. Zambrano Cardona
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstraße 6, 14195 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Udo Gansloßer
- Institut für Zoologie & Evolutionsforschung mit Phyletischem Museum, Ernst-Haeckel-Haus und Biologiedidaktik, Erbertstr. 1, 07743 Jena, Germany;
- Department of Biology, University of Vechta, Driverstrasee 22, 49377 Vechta, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
De Santis M, Filugelli L, Mair A, Normando S, Mutinelli F, Contalbrigo L. How to Measure Human-Dog Interaction in Dog Assisted Interventions? A Scoping Review. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:410. [PMID: 38338052 PMCID: PMC10854530 DOI: 10.3390/ani14030410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Human-dog interaction is the working tool through which the therapeutic, educational and recreational goals of dog-assisted interventions (DAIs) are achieved. A better understanding of the characteristics of this interaction could improve the effectiveness of DAIs. This scoping review addresses the question: how has the human-dog connection been measured in the context of DAIs? After searching the Web of Science and Scopus platforms, only peer-reviewed, primary research studies reporting measures of therapy dog-human interaction, relationship and bond were included. A total of 70 included articles provided information on what was measured (interaction, relationship or bond) and how, as well as the general context (DAIs or experimental situations with therapy dogs). While the majority of the articles identified use behavioural analysis methods to analyse the interaction between the participant/recipient and the therapy dog during DAIs, it was possible to identify some more structured tools that assess the participant/recipient's interaction, relationship or bond with the therapy dog, as well as tools that consider the animal's perspective or focus on the dog-handler dyad, indicating growing areas of research. The tools and methods identified can be used by both practitioners and researchers to further explore aspects of human-dog interaction in the field of DAIs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta De Santis
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (M.D.S.); (L.F.); (F.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Lorena Filugelli
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (M.D.S.); (L.F.); (F.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Alberto Mair
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (M.D.S.); (L.F.); (F.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Simona Normando
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, Università degli Studi di Padova, Viale dell’Università, 14, 35020 Legnaro, Italy;
| | - Franco Mutinelli
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (M.D.S.); (L.F.); (F.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Laura Contalbrigo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (M.D.S.); (L.F.); (F.M.); (L.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
van Houtert EAE, Endenburg N, Vermetten E, Rodenburg TB. Hair Cortisol in Service Dogs for Veterans with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Compared to Companion Dogs ( Canis Familiaris). J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2023; 26:623-633. [PMID: 35120413 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2022.2033119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Service dogs are trained to assist humans. This assistance potentially exposes them to stressors To investigate if service dogs are exposed to more stressors than companion dogs we questioned whether hair cortisol levels differed between both groups. We studied this by cutting a tuft of hair from the neck of 19 companion and 11 service dogs. Cortisol levels were subsequently analyzed via immunoassay and compared via a simple linear regression model. The influence of coat color, season, sex, other dogs, pets, or mental health diagnoses in the household was also checked . Results showed that cortisol values did not differ between service and companion dogs. Furthermore, none of the additional variables had an influence on cortisol levels. This lead to the conclusion that the service dogs in this study did not have higher hair cortisol levels than companion dogs Further study should be conducted as to why no difference did occur between groups and if this difference is persistent over time given that we only studied a period of up to two months' worth of hair cortisol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emmy A E van Houtert
- Animal in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Nienke Endenburg
- Animal in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - T Bas Rodenburg
- Animal in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of MGGZ, Ministry of Defence, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hamilton-Bruce MA, Young J, Nottle C, Hazel SJ, Milton AG, McDowall S, Mani B, Koblar S. Developing and Planning a Protocol for Implementing Health Promoting Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI) in a Tertiary Health Setting. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6780. [PMID: 37754639 PMCID: PMC10531378 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20186780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
The Ottawa Charter identifies that multiple levels of government, non-government, community, and other organizations should work together to facilitate health promotion, including in acute settings such as hospitals. We outline a method and protocol to achieve this, namely an Action Research (AR) framework for an Animal Assisted Intervention (AAI) in a tertiary health setting. Dogs Offering Support after Stroke (DOgSS) is an AR study at a major tertiary referral hospital. AAI has been reported to improve mood and quality of life for patients in hospitals. Our project objectives included applying for funding, developing a hospital dog visiting Action Research project, and, subsequent to ethics and governance approvals and finance, undertaking and reporting on the Action Research findings. The Action Research project aimed to investigate whether AAI (dog-visiting) makes a difference to the expressed mood of stroke patients and their informal supports (visiting carers/family/friends), and also the impact these visits have on hospital staff and volunteers, as well as the dog handler and dog involved. We provide our protocol for project management and operations, setting out how the project is conducted from conception to assess human and animal wellbeing and assist subsequent decision-making about introducing dog-visiting to the Stroke Unit. The protocol can be used or adapted by other organizations to try to avoid pitfalls and support health promotion in one of the five important action areas of the Ottawa Charter, namely that of reorienting health services.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Anne Hamilton-Bruce
- Stroke Research Programme, Basil Hetzel Institute, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Central Adelaide Local Health Network, Woodville South 5011, Australia;
| | - Janette Young
- Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (J.Y.); (C.N.)
| | - Carmel Nottle
- Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (J.Y.); (C.N.)
| | - Susan J. Hazel
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy 5371, Australia;
| | - Austin G. Milton
- Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia; (A.G.M.); (S.K.)
| | - Sonya McDowall
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy 5371, Australia;
| | - Ben Mani
- Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (J.Y.); (C.N.)
| | - Simon Koblar
- Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia; (A.G.M.); (S.K.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hill J, Driscoll C, Cawdell-Smith J, Anderson S, Ziviani J. Investigating Dog Welfare When Interacting with Autistic Children within Canine-Assisted Occupational Therapy Sessions: A Single Case Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1965. [PMID: 37370475 DOI: 10.3390/ani13121965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Human-animal bond is defined as the mutually beneficial relationship between humans and animals. Recent years have seen increasing research regarding the benefits of interaction with animals for autistic children. However, there continue to be limited studies exploring the impact of this interaction on the welfare of therapy dogs. As part of a pilot randomised control trial assessing the efficacy of canine-assisted occupational therapy with autistic children, this project assessed welfare markers of the therapy dog involved. A total of twenty-one saliva samples were taken from the therapy dog to assess cortisol, alpha amylase, and oxytocin concentrations at home and throughout the treatment days. Additionally, six hours of therapy session videos were analysed for stress indicators of canine behaviour. No significant differences were found between days spent at home and treatment days for any of the biomarkers or stress indicators. Results suggest that the therapy dog involved did not experience increased stress resulting from interaction with the autistic children throughout the therapy sessions. This study supports the need for further research regarding therapy dog welfare when interacting with autistic children including an increased sample size of therapy dogs and therapists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Hill
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Carlie Driscoll
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Judy Cawdell-Smith
- School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Stephen Anderson
- School of Biomedical Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jenny Ziviani
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kerman K, Demirbas YS, Atilgan D, Isparta S, Saral B, Pereira J, Da Graça Pereira G. BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES TO SEPARATION FROM HUMAN COMPANION IN THE DOMESTIC CAT: A SURVEY-BASED STUDY. Behav Processes 2023:104892. [PMID: 37217026 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2023.104892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The domestic cat is known to react to social separation, though the conceptual relationship between separation-related behaviours outside of a clinical context has not been described in detail. We did an online survey on participants who had cats in their households (Nparticipants=114; Ncats=133) and asked them to evaluate the frequency of 12 behavioural elements associated with social separation from human companions on a 5- point Likert Scale. We performed two dimensionality reduction techniques (component and factor analyses) to assess whether the specified behaviours related to social separation belonged to the same axis. We found four distinct components instead of one: (a) reactivity towards companion departure cues, (b) protest behaviour towards inaccessibility, (c) unusual elimination behaviour, and (d) negative responses following social separation. Our findings suggest a manifestation of different motivational states rather than a single, separation-related construct. Future studies would benefit from a careful evaluation of the separation-related behaviours in a multi-measure context to improve the accuracy of ethological classifications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaan Kerman
- Department of Psychology, Bilkent University.
| | | | - Durmus Atilgan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University
| | - Sevim Isparta
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University; Biopsychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University
| | - Begum Saral
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
McDowall S, Hazel SJ, Cobb M, Hamilton-Bruce A. Understanding the Role of Therapy Dogs in Human Health Promotion. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:ijerph20105801. [PMID: 37239529 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20105801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Dogs may provide humans with a range of physical, mental and social benefits. Whilst there is growing scientific evidence of benefits to humans, there has been less focus on the impact to canine health, welfare and ethical considerations for the dogs. The importance of animal welfare is increasingly acknowledged, indicating that the Ottawa Charter should be extended to include the welfare of non-human animals supporting the promotion of human health. Therapy dog programmes are delivered across a variety of settings including hospitals, aged care facilities and mental health services, highlighting the important role they play in human health outcomes. Research has shown that that there are biomarkers for stress in humans and other animals engaged in human-animal interactions. This review aims to assess the impact of human-animal interactions on therapy dogs engaged in providing support to human health. While challenging, it is paramount to ensure that, within the framework of One Welfare, the welfare of therapy dogs is included, as it is a key factor for future sustainability. We identified a range of concerns due to the lack of guidelines and standards to protect the wellbeing of the dogs engaged in these programmes. Extension of the Ottawa Charter to include the welfare of non-human animals with leveraging through a One Welfare approach would promote animal and human health beyond current boundaries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonya McDowall
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, Roseworthy Campus, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
| | - Susan J Hazel
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, Roseworthy Campus, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA 5371, Australia
| | - Mia Cobb
- Animal Welfare Science Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Anne Hamilton-Bruce
- Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Foltin S, Glenk LM. Current Perspectives on the Challenges of Implementing Assistance Dogs in Human Mental Health Care. Vet Sci 2023; 10:62. [PMID: 36669063 PMCID: PMC9867308 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10010062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of mental health disorders, driven by current global crises, is notably high. During the past decades, the popularity of dogs assisting humans with a wide spectrum of mental health disorders has significantly increased. Notwithstanding these dogs' doubtless value, research on their legal status, certification processes, training and management practices, as well as their welfare status, has been scarce. This scoping review highlights that in contrast to other assistance dogs such as guide dogs, there exists no consistent terminology to mark dogs that assist humans with impaired mental health. Legal authorities monitoring the accreditation process, training and tracking of mental health supporting dogs are broadly lacking, with only few exceptions. This review emphasizes the need to address several topics in the promotion of progress in legal and welfare issues related to assistance dogs as well as emotional support dogs for humans with a mental health disorder. The current body of knowledge was assessed in three different areas of focus: (1) the legal dimension including definitions and certification processes; (2) the dimension of performed tasks; and (3) the dog welfare dimension including aspects of the relationship with the handler and risks associated with children recipients. Considering the challenges associated with a mental health diagnosis, collaborations of dog provider organizations and health care professionals would be desirable to continuously assess the efficiency of the human-dog dyad regarding their overall compatibility, general satisfaction and mutual well-being.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Foltin
- Department of Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Lisa Maria Glenk
- Comparative Medicine, The Interuniversity Messerli Research Institute of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Giraudet CSE, Liu K, McElligott AG, Cobb M. Are children and dogs best friends? A scoping review to explore the positive and negative effects of child-dog interactions. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14532. [PMID: 36570006 PMCID: PMC9774011 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Personal wellbeing is greatly influenced by our childhood and adolescence, and the relationships formed during those phases of our development. The human-dog bond represents a significant relationship that started thousands of years ago. There is a higher prevalence of dog ownership around the world, especially in households including children. This has resulted in a growing number of researchers studying our interactions with dogs and an expanding evidence base from the exploration of child-dog interactions. We review the potential effects of child-dog interactions on the physical, mental, and social wellbeing of both species. A search of the SCOPUS database identified documents published between January 1980 and April 2022. Filtering for key inclusion criteria, duplicate removals, and inspecting the references of these documents for additional sources, we reviewed a total of 393 documents, 88% of which were scientific articles. We were able to define the numerous ways in which children and dogs interact, be it neutral (e.g., sharing a common area), positive (e.g., petting), or negative (e.g., biting). Then, we found evidence for an association between childhood interaction with dogs and an array of benefits such as increased physical activities, a reduction of stress, and the development of empathy. Nonetheless, several detrimental outcomes have also been identified for both humans and dogs. Children are the most at-risk population regarding dog bites and dog-borne zoonoses, which may lead to injuries/illness, a subsequent fear of dogs, or even death. Moreover, pet bereavement is generally inevitable when living with a canine companion and should not be trivialized. With a canine focus, children sometimes take part in caretaking behaviors toward them, such as feeding or going for walks. These represent opportunities for dogs to relieve themselves outside, but also to exercise and socialize. By contrast, a lack of physical activity can lead to the onset of obesity in both dogs and children. Dogs may present greater levels of stress when in the presence of children. Finally, the welfare of assistance, therapy, and free-roaming dogs who may interact with children remains underexplored. Overall, it appears that the benefits of child-dog interactions outweigh the risks for children but not for dogs; determination of the effects on both species, positive as well as negative, still requires further development. We call for longitudinal studies and cross-cultural research in the future to better understand the impact of child-dog interactions. Our review is important for people in and outside of the scientific community, to pediatricians, veterinarians, and current or future dog owners seeking to extend their knowledge, and to inform future research of scientists studying dogs and human-animal interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claire S. E. Giraudet
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kai Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Animal Health Research Centre, Chengdu Research Institute, City University of Hong Kong, Chengdu, China
| | - Alan G. McElligott
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Mia Cobb
- Animal Welfare Science Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
|
11
|
Meers LL, Contalbrigo L, Samuels WE, Duarte-Gan C, Berckmans D, Laufer SJ, Stevens VA, Walsh EA, Normando S. Canine-Assisted Interventions and the Relevance of Welfare Assessments for Human Health, and Transmission of Zoonosis: A Literature Review. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:899889. [PMID: 35782560 PMCID: PMC9247644 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.899889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CAIs (canine-assisted interventions) include "canine-assisted therapy" in which a therapist sets client-oriented goals, 'canine-assisted activities' with recreational goals for clients, and 'canine-assisted education/learning' in which teachers or coaches create learning goals for students or clients. CAIs vary in nearly every way; their only common trait is the involvement of dogs to respond to human need. However, the benefits of involving dogs are highly dependent on the animal's health and behavior. A dog exhibiting negative behavior or an unwell dog might pose a risk, especially for CAI target groups, specifically individuals with immunosuppression, chronic illness, children, elderly, etc. Therefore, positive animal welfare as preventative medicine to avoid incidents or transmission of zoonosis is an attractive hypothesis, with implications for human and animal, health and well-being. This review aims to summarize the current published knowledge regarding different aspects of welfare in CAIs and to discuss their relevance in the light of health and safety in CAI participants. As method for this study, a literature search was conducted (2001-2022) using the Prisma method, describing issues of dog welfare as defined in the Welfare Quality® approach. This welfare assessment tool includes 4 categories related to behavior, health, management, and environment; it was, therefore, applicable to CAIs. Results indicate that dogs working in CAIs are required to cope with diverse variables that can jeopardize their welfare. In conclusion, we propose regular welfare assessments for dogs in CAIs, which would also protect the quality of the CAI sessions and the clients' safety and well-being.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Contalbrigo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Instituto Zooprofilattico, Legnaro, Italy
| | - William Ellery Samuels
- Hunter College, School of Nursing, The City University of New York, New York, NY, United States
| | - Carolina Duarte-Gan
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Educational Sciences, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
| | - Daniel Berckmans
- Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Dier en Mens, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | | | - Simona Normando
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Miller SL, Serpell JA, Dalton KR, Waite KB, Morris DO, Redding LE, Dreschel NA, Davis MF. The Importance of Evaluating Positive Welfare Characteristics and Temperament in Working Therapy Dogs. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:844252. [PMID: 35445102 PMCID: PMC9014261 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.844252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, investigations of the welfare of therapy dogs have focused largely on examining physiological and behavioral measures that could indicate if the animal is experiencing stress or distress. However, this approach does not fully address the definition of welfare which is often described as existing on a continuum from negative (or stressful) to positive. With therapy dogs, it would be worth addressing if they experience positive emotional affect while working since the quality and efficacy of animal-assisted interventions for the human recipient is likely to be influenced by the animal's emotional state during the interaction. The purpose of this review is to articulate how objective measurements of the HPA axis and measurements of behavioral observations and standardized questions can be used to evaluate positive welfare in therapy dogs. A potentially relevant indicator of positive welfare is the peripheral concentration of the neurohormone oxytocin, which has been found to increase in systemic circulation within a variety of species during positive social and affiliative contexts, including during human-dog interaction. Oxytocin is also a negative-feedback regulator of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, which culminates with the production of the stress hormone cortisol. Cortisol is widely used as a physiological indicator to assess negative welfare states in animals, including therapy dogs. Observable behavior during interactions with humans that may convey enjoyment could provide indicators of positive welfare in dogs such as engagement in play, or human-directed affiliative behaviors including leaning against, nudging, or licking the patient. However, in assessing positive welfare, it is also critical to consider that all animal behavioral displays and physiological responses are dependent on the dog's individual (and breed) temperament. Temperament directly drives how the animal copes and responds to its current physical and social environment, including during stressful situations such as when therapy dogs interact with unfamiliar humans in novel healthcare settings. Coupled with both positive and negative physiological and behavioral welfare indicators, questionnaire data can provide further context to, and enhance interpretations of, therapy dog welfare assessment results. Overall, to date, no studies have measured all of these factors to assess therapy dog welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sharmaine L Miller
- One Health Laboratory, Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - James A Serpell
- Department of Clinical Sciences & Advanced Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Kathryn R Dalton
- One Health Laboratory, Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kaitlin B Waite
- One Health Laboratory, Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Daniel O Morris
- Department of Clinical Sciences & Advanced Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Laurel E Redding
- Department of Clinical Studies-New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, United States
| | - Nancy A Dreschel
- Department of Animal Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Meghan F Davis
- One Health Laboratory, Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology and Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mignot A, de Luca K, Servais V, Leboucher G. Handlers' Representations on Therapy Dogs' Welfare. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:580. [PMID: 35268155 PMCID: PMC8908983 DOI: 10.3390/ani12050580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
While research on the benefits of animal-assisted interventions is beginning to build a significant body of work, studies on the well-being of therapy dogs are still in their infancy. Since handlers are the people responsible for their therapy dog's welfare, we interviewed 111 French handlers through an online questionnaire. Our results underlined that (i) therapy dogs' welfare is multidimensional when physical and psychological welfare, a balance between work and dog life and the settings and interactions of sessions are all taken into consideration. (ii) The response of our handlers emphasized that considering therapy dog welfare is important for the quality and safety of AAI. (iii) Three categories of risks factors were highlighted: the spatio-temporal framework (planning and environment), the interactions with beneficiaries and the handler themselves. It is particularly important that handlers talk about the negative impact of interactions with beneficiaries since they are at the heart of AAI, however there are few studies focusing on interactions as a stressor for dogs in this practice. Moreover, since there is a potential for positive bias in the handlers' representations, it is important that they be trained to identify and manage the stress in their dogs. Future research is particularly needed on the impact of interactions during sessions on therapy dog welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Mignot
- Boehringer Ingelheim, 69800 Saint-Priest, France;
- Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Liege, B-400 Liege, Belgium;
- Ethology Cognition Development Laboratory, University of Paris Nanterre, 92001 Nanterre, France;
| | | | - Véronique Servais
- Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Liege, B-400 Liege, Belgium;
| | - Gérard Leboucher
- Ethology Cognition Development Laboratory, University of Paris Nanterre, 92001 Nanterre, France;
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bidoli EM, Erhard MH, Döring D. Heart rate and heart rate variability in school dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
15
|
Dogs as Therapeutic Partners, Not Therapeutic Tools: Ethical Considerations for AAT in the Correctional Setting. SOCIAL SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/socsci10110432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the benefits of animal assisted therapy for people are well established, the ethical considerations for the welfare and safety of the non-human animals involved are not. Without an accrediting body responsible for creating and overseeing national standards, therapy animal organizations are forced to create their own guidelines, creating inconsistencies within the field. Based on interviews conducted with therapy teams who have worked with Parenting, Prison & Pups (PPP), a parenting program provided to incarcerated jailed women that is integrated with the use of animal-assisted therapy (AAT), this article explores the extent of ethics training offered for AAT teams and will examine how agencies and handlers promote and ensure the safety of canine partners, especially in a correctional setting. The research suggests that specific protocols put forth by individual AAT organizations, which can provide for a national model, can afford for the safety and comfortability of canine partners, especially in a corrections environment, but implies that in order to maintain consistency and increase therapy team professionalism, national standards are a necessity. Guidelines are specifically essential for mental health professionals, who lack guidelines from their own accrediting bodies’ code of ethics, and may incorporate non-human therapy partners into their work settings, without proper supervision.
Collapse
|
16
|
Menuge F, Marcet-Rius M, Chabaud C, Teruel E, Berthelot C, Kalonji G, Bienboire-Frosini C, Mendonça T, Lascar E, Pageat P. Repeated separations between a future guide dog and its foster family modify stress-related indicators and affect dog’s focus. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
17
|
Glenk LM, Foltin S. Therapy Dog Welfare Revisited: A Review of the Literature. Vet Sci 2021; 8:226. [PMID: 34679056 PMCID: PMC8538106 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8100226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
During the past decade, the field of human-animal interaction(s) research has been characterized by a significant increase in scientific findings. These data have contributed to our current understanding of how humans may benefit from contact with animals. However, the animal experience of these interactions is still an under-researched area. This paper addresses the welfare of dogs who participate in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) to improve health in human recipients. This paper builds on previous work by Glenk (2017) and provides an updated review of the literature on therapy dog welfare published from 2017-2021. New advances in scientific methodology, such as the determination of salivary oxytocin, breath rate and tympanic membrane temperature, are analyzed regarding their value and limitations for research in AAIs. Moreover, welfare-related social and environmental factors (e.g., freedom of choice, exploration of novel environments, inequity aversion, individual development, working experience, relationship with handler and handler skills) that profoundly influence dog perception and well-being are reviewed and discussed. Accounting for the globally increasing interest and the number of dogs utilized in AAIs, safeguarding therapy dog well-being, and identifying situations, circumstances and protocols that may challenge animal welfare remains an emerging and crucial area of scientific effort.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Maria Glenk
- Comparative Medicine, The Interuniversity Messerli Research Institute of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University Vienna and University Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sandra Foltin
- Department of Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
van Houtert EAE, Endenburg N, Rodenburg TB, Vermetten E. Do Service Dogs for Veterans with PTSD Mount a Cortisol Response in Response to Training? Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11030650. [PMID: 33804470 PMCID: PMC7998945 DOI: 10.3390/ani11030650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary A growing number of people are supported by specialized service dogs. These dogs are highly trained to improve human welfare, yet not much is known about their own welfare. One of the ways in which welfare can be measured is through the expression of stress via the hormone cortisol. In this study, we investigated the level of cortisol in saliva, a measure for physiological stress, in 19 service dogs. We measured cortisol in the dogs’ saliva 15 min after arrival at a training ground, before partaking in a training session for service dogs, after participation in the training session, and after a 45-min free play period. We found no elevated levels of cortisol after the training session. Instead, we found that cortisol had lowered when compared to before the training. Additionally, we found that cortisol was highest 15 min after arriving at the training round and after 45 min of free play. This led to the conclusion that dogs in our study did not seem to have a stress response in response to participation in the training. Abstract Only a few studies have investigated the welfare of animals participating in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs). Most of these studies focus on dogs in therapeutic settings. There are, however, also dogs—service dogs—that are employed to continuously support a single human. Because the welfare of these service dogs is important for the sustainability of their role, the aim of this study was to investigate their stress response to service dog training sessions. To do this, we took repeated salivary cortisol samples from dogs who participated in a training session (n = 19). Samples were taken just after arrival at the training ground, before training, after training, and after a period of free play. Our results showed that mean cortisol levels in all samples were relatively low (between 1.55 ± 1.10 and 2.73 ± 1.47 nmol/L) compared to similar studies. Analysis further showed that samples taken before and after participation in the training’s session did not differ from one another. Mean cortisol levels in both situations were additionally lower than those upon arrival at the training site and after a period of free play. This led to the conclusion that the dogs in our study did not seem to experience training as stressful.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emmy A. E. van Houtert
- Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.E.); (T.B.R.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nienke Endenburg
- Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.E.); (T.B.R.)
| | - T. Bas Rodenburg
- Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.E.); (T.B.R.)
| | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Centre, 2311 EZ Leiden, The Netherlands;
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, 1112 XE Diemen, The Netherlands
- Department of MGGZ, Ministry of Defence, 3584 EZ Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Cortisol Levels of Shelter Dogs in Animal Assisted Interventions in a Prison: An Exploratory Study. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020345. [PMID: 33572936 PMCID: PMC7911336 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI) are growing in popularity among professionals of psychological therapies due to their clear benefit for human health. However, to date, little attention has been paid to the welfare of the animals involved in the interventions. In this study we evaluated the potential impact of such activities on the welfare of dogs living in a kennel, which had weekly interactions with inmates held at a prison. To assess their stress levels, we analyzed their physiological response to a stressful situation by measuring the cortisol levels in saliva samples. We found a significant decrease in cortisol concentration at the end of the AAI program measured in the dogs’ living environment (i.e., kennel), which suggests a positive effect of the AAI activities on the welfare of kennel dogs. The results also suggest that transportation from the kennel to the prison could be perceived as a stressful event since it significantly increased dogs’ cortisol levels. Therefore, particular care should be taken in the management of this phase. Abstract Previous studies regarding the Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI) have mainly focused on the beneficial effects of human–animal interactions on human health; whereas the impact of such activities on the welfare of the animals involved has received limited attention. So far, few studies have addressed this issue by evaluating the physiological and behavioral reactions of therapy dogs during the interventions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential effect of AAI on the cortisol levels of shelter dogs. Five dogs participated in weekly AAI working activities with adult inmates held at a prison of the South of Italy for two months. Saliva samples were collected every two weeks in three conditions: at the kennel (baseline), after transportation and at the end of the working sessions. The results revealed a significant decrease in the cortisol baseline at the end of the AAI program, suggesting that the activities carried out with humans and in a different environment could improve the welfare of dogs housed in kennels. Moreover, we found that transportation significantly increased subjects’ cortisol levels, suggesting that it is a critical phase that deserves particular care.
Collapse
|
20
|
Assessment of dental anxiety in children between 5 and 10 years of age in the presence of a therapy dog: a randomized controlled clinical study. Eur Arch Paediatr Dent 2020; 22:459-467. [PMID: 33245525 DOI: 10.1007/s40368-020-00583-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Children are often afraid to visit a dentist. Dental anxiety is a worldwide issue and a barrier to successful treatment outcome. Pet therapy, especially through dogs, has been demonstrated to be beneficial in reducing anxiety. In today's generation, where dopamine is prevalent, attention is hijacked, and children are tethered to screens-this research on animal-assisted therapy outlines the impact on children undergoing simple dental procedures, and to evaluate its use in long-term behavior management, and child and parental acceptance of this technique. METHODS One hundred and two children between five and 10 years of age and requiring simple dental procedures were selected randomly and divided into two groups. In Group A, dental treatment was carried out in the presence of a therapy dog, and in Group B (the control group), dental treatment was carried out in a regular dental setup. Anxiety levels were evaluated by pulse rate and anxiety rating scale. Prior to exiting the room, the parents were asked to rate the child's interaction with therapy dogs. RESULTS According to an independent t test, reduction in anxiety was highly significant (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION Animal-assisted therapy is an effective behavior management strategy.
Collapse
|
21
|
Dog Welfare, Well-Being and Behavior: Considerations for Selection, Evaluation and Suitability for Animal-Assisted Therapy. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10112188. [PMID: 33238376 PMCID: PMC7700550 DOI: 10.3390/ani10112188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Benefits for humans participating in animal-assisted therapy (AAT) have been long documented; however, welfare considerations for the animal counterparts are still quite non-specific, often relating to more general concerns associated with animal-assisted interventions (AAIs). Providers of AAT have a moral and ethical obligation to extend the “Do No Harm” tenet to the animals with whom they work. Companion animals do not ask or voluntarily sign up to be a part of a therapeutic team and their natural traits of love and sociability can easily be misinterpreted and exploited. This article reviews the current state of animal-assisted interventions; it highlights the lack of sufficient evaluation processes for dogs working with AAT professionals, as well as the risks associated with not protecting the dogs’ welfare. Finally, the authors make recommendations for determining the suitability of specific dogs in the clinical setting and ensuring that the population, environment, and context of the work is amenable to the dogs’ welfare and well-being. Abstract Health care and human service providers may include dogs in formal intervention settings to positively impact human physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains. Dogs working within this context are asked to cope with a multitude of variables including settings, populations, activities, and schedules. In this article, the authors highlight how both the preparation and operation of dogs within animal-assisted therapy (AAT) differs from less structured animal-assisted activities (AAA) and more exclusive assistance animal work; the authors highlight the gaps in our knowledge in this regard, and propose an ethically sound framework for pragmatic solutions. This framework also emphasizes the need for good dog welfare to safeguard all participants. If dogs are not properly matched to a job or handler, they may be subjected to unnecessary stress, anxiety, and miscommunication that can lead to disinterest in the work, overt problematic behavioral or health outcomes, or general unsuitability. Such issues can have catastrophic outcomes for the AAT. The authors propose standards for best practices for selection, humane-based preparation and training, and ongoing evaluation to ensure the health, welfare and well-being of dogs working in AAT, which will have concomitant benefits for clients and the professionalism of the field.
Collapse
|
22
|
Clark SD, Smidt JM, Bauer BA. Therapy Dogs' and Handlers' Behavior and Salivary Cortisol During Initial Visits in a Complex Medical Institution: A Pilot Study. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:564201. [PMID: 33282927 PMCID: PMC7691227 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.564201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapy dogs provide health benefits for individuals who suffer from illnesses, such as dementia, depression, loneliness, and aggression. Therapy dogs' impact on human health has been thoroughly studied; however, studies on dog welfare have been limited. Additionally, as dogs have evolved with humans, they have learned to read non-verbal social cues. Dogs can read humans' non-verbal body language and can react to their emotions. However, the body language of dogs is poorly understood and can lead to dog owner-directed aggression. Communication plays a vital role to be a cohesive therapy team. The purpose of this study was to assess perceived stress and cortisol concentrations in therapy dogs and their handlers during the first three visits in a hospital setting. Moreover, the study aimed to investigate whether, while in an overstimulating environment, a therapy dog handler can observe his or her dog's body language and correlate such observations to the dog's stress. Nine therapy dog teams from Mayo Clinic's Caring Canine Program participated in this study. A baseline salivary cortisol was collected from the handler and therapy dog each day of the visits. Once the team arrived, a pre-visit salivary cortisol was collected from the handler and therapy dog and, afterward, a post-visit salivary cortisol. Handlers were also asked to fill out a perceived stress survey on their own stress and that of their therapy dogs'. Behavior was documented by a staff member and the handler. For each visit, the therapy dogs were at the hospital on average 47 min and visited with nine people. There was significant correlation (P = 0.02) between the owner's perceived stress of his or her therapy dog and the dog's salivary cortisol concentrations. The handlers noted medium to high stress, and those dogs had higher cortisol concentrations post-visit. There was no significant difference in salivary cortisol for the handler and therapy dog over the course of the three visits and comparing pre- and post-visit. Overall, the dogs displayed mixed behaviors, with the three most reported being panting, lip licking, and yawning. However, salivary cortisol results suggest that the handlers and therapy dogs maintained their welfare state throughout the visits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie D Clark
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Jessica M Smidt
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Brent A Bauer
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Clark SD, Martin F, McGowan RT, Smidt JM, Anderson R, Wang L, Turpin T, Langenfeld-McCoy N, Bauer BA, Mohabbat AB. Physiological State of Therapy Dogs during Animal-Assisted Activities in an Outpatient Setting. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E819. [PMID: 32397366 PMCID: PMC7277909 DOI: 10.3390/ani10050819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapy dogs are increasingly being incorporated into numerous clinical settings. However, there are only a handful of studies that have focused on the impact of animal-assisted activity or therapy sessions on the wellbeing of the therapy dogs. Furthermore, these studies show mixed results. The goal of this study was to provide an in-depth picture of the effects of these interactions on the dogs involved by considering multiple physiological measures known to be associated with emotional state (continuous heart rate, heart rate variability, pre- and post-session tympanic membrane temperatures, and salivary cortisol and oxytocin concentrations). Nineteen Mayo Clinic Caring Canine therapy dogs completed five 20-minute animal-assisted activity (AAA) visits each in an outpatient clinical setting (Mayo Clinic Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Clinic). From a physiological perspective, the dogs showed a neutral to positive response to the AAA sessions. Heart rate (HR) was significantly lower at the end of the session compared with the beginning of the session (F = 17.26, df1 = 1, df2 = 29.7, p = 0.0003). The right tympanic membrane temperature was lower post-session (F = 8.87, df1 = 1, df2 = 107, p = 0.003). All other emotional indicators remained stable between pre- and post-session. These results suggest that the dogs involved were not negatively affected by their participation in the AAA. Moreover, there was some evidence suggesting the dogs may have been in a more relaxed state at the end of the session (lower HR and lower right tympanic membrane temperature) compared to the beginning of the session.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie D. Clark
- Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Division of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55901, USA; (S.D.C.); (J.M.S.); (B.A.B.)
| | - François Martin
- Nestlé Purina Research, St. Louis, MO 63102, USA; (F.M.); (R.T.S.M.); (R.A.); (L.W.); (T.T.); (N.L.-M.)
| | - Ragen T.S. McGowan
- Nestlé Purina Research, St. Louis, MO 63102, USA; (F.M.); (R.T.S.M.); (R.A.); (L.W.); (T.T.); (N.L.-M.)
| | - Jessica M. Smidt
- Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Division of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55901, USA; (S.D.C.); (J.M.S.); (B.A.B.)
| | - Rachel Anderson
- Nestlé Purina Research, St. Louis, MO 63102, USA; (F.M.); (R.T.S.M.); (R.A.); (L.W.); (T.T.); (N.L.-M.)
| | - Lei Wang
- Nestlé Purina Research, St. Louis, MO 63102, USA; (F.M.); (R.T.S.M.); (R.A.); (L.W.); (T.T.); (N.L.-M.)
| | - Tricia Turpin
- Nestlé Purina Research, St. Louis, MO 63102, USA; (F.M.); (R.T.S.M.); (R.A.); (L.W.); (T.T.); (N.L.-M.)
| | - Natalie Langenfeld-McCoy
- Nestlé Purina Research, St. Louis, MO 63102, USA; (F.M.); (R.T.S.M.); (R.A.); (L.W.); (T.T.); (N.L.-M.)
| | - Brent A. Bauer
- Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Division of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55901, USA; (S.D.C.); (J.M.S.); (B.A.B.)
| | - Arya B. Mohabbat
- Section of Integrative Medicine and Health, Division of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55901, USA; (S.D.C.); (J.M.S.); (B.A.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
|
25
|
The combined use of salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate, and respiratory rate for the welfare assessment of dogs involved in AAI programs. J Vet Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2019.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
26
|
Holder TRN, Gruen ME, Roberts DL, Somers T, Bozkurt A. A Systematic Literature Review of Animal-Assisted Interventions in Oncology (Part II): Theoretical Mechanisms and Frameworks. Integr Cancer Ther 2020; 19:1534735420943269. [PMID: 32698731 PMCID: PMC7378713 DOI: 10.1177/1534735420943269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) can improve patients' quality of life as complementary medical treatments. Part I of this 2-paper systematic review focused on the methods and results of cancer-related AAIs; Part II discusses the theories of the field's investigators. Researchers cite animal personality, physical touch, physical movement, distraction, and increased human interaction as sources of observed positive outcomes. These mechanisms then group under theoretical frameworks such as the social support hypothesis or the human-animal bond concept to fully explain AAI in oncology. The cognitive activation theory of stress, the science of unitary human beings, and the self-object hypothesis are additional frameworks mentioned by some researchers. We also discuss concepts of neurobiological transduction connecting mechanisms to AAI benefits. Future researchers should base study design on theories with testable hypotheses and use consistent terminology to report results. This review aids progress toward a unified theoretical framework and toward more holistic cancer treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy R. N. Holder
- University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, NC, USA
- North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - Alper Bozkurt
- University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, NC, USA
- North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Hall SS, Brown BJ, Mills DS. Developing and Assessing the Validity of a Scale to Assess Pet Dog Quality of Life: Lincoln P-QoL. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:326. [PMID: 31616681 PMCID: PMC6775215 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been little investment in exploring the impact of the child-dog relationship on the dog. Since child-dog interactions can pose potentially serious threats to a dog's physical and psychological health, as well as the wider satisfaction of the owner with their dog, we describe the development and validation of an owner-completed pet dog quality of life scale (Lincoln P-QOL), to enable professionals and families to monitor dog well-being and employ suitable interventions as required. Four-hundred and two dog-owners (194 lived with a neuro-typically developing child; 208 lived with a child with a neuro-developmental disorder) responded to an online survey. Respondents recorded whether they had observed their dog displaying any of the 22 behavioral responses which have been identified as being common in 11 child-dog interactions. These behavioral responses appeared to group into three categories of behaviors (i.e., behavioral constructs), representing Excitability, Calmness, and Fearfulness in the dog. To assess convergent validity of the quality of life scale respondents completed additional measures including, dog body condition score, health issues (incorporating psychological factors such as anxiety and physical proxies of well-being, such as skin irritations) and dog-owner relationship satisfaction. Excitability and Fearfulness constructs were associated with a negative impact on dog health and the owner-dog relationship. Calmness was associated with a positive impact on the dog-owner relationship. A range of interactions, including carefully expressed child-dog physical affection and spending quiet time together appear to had a beneficial impact on dog quality of life, whereas rough contact, child meltdowns, and grooming/bathing had a negative effect. We found little evidence to support a difference in the overall quality of life of dogs living with neuro-typically developing children compared to those with a neuro-developmental disorder. However, parents and practitioners need to be aware of the potential increased risk to dog well-being when meltdowns, grooming/bathing, and quiet time involve a child with a neuro-developmental disorder. This is the first validated scale for the assessment of dog well-being around children, additionally, the behavioral constructs identified may form the rational basis of a more general dog behavior/stress assessment tool in social situations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie S. Hall
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Beverley J. Brown
- Division of Psychiatry and Applied Psychology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel S. Mills
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Hall SS, Finka L, Mills DS. A systematic scoping review: What is the risk from child-dog interactions to dog’s quality of life? J Vet Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
29
|
Ntalampiras SA, Ludovico LA, Presti G, Prato Previde EP, Battini M, Cannas S, Palestrini C, Mattiello S. Automatic Classification of Cat VocalizationsEmitted in Different Contexts. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9080543. [PMID: 31405018 PMCID: PMC6719916 DOI: 10.3390/ani9080543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cat vocalizations are their basic means of communication. They are particularly important in assessing their welfare status since they are indicative of information associated with the environment they were produced, the animal’s emotional state, etc. As such, this work proposes a fully automatic framework with the ability to process such vocalizations and reveal the context in which they were produced. To this end, we used suitable audio signal processing and pattern recognition algorithms. We recorded vocalizations from Maine Coon and European Shorthair breeds emitted in three different contexts, namely waiting for food, isolation in unfamiliar environment, and brushing. The obtained results are excellent, rendering the proposed framework particularly useful towards a better understanding of the acoustic communication between humans and cats. Abstract Cats employ vocalizations for communicating information, thus their sounds can carry a wide range of meanings. Concerning vocalization, an aspect of increasing relevance directly connected with the welfare of such animals is its emotional interpretation and the recognition of the production context. To this end, this work presents a proof of concept facilitating the automatic analysis of cat vocalizations based on signal processing and pattern recognition techniques, aimed at demonstrating if the emission context can be identified by meowing vocalizations, even if recorded in sub-optimal conditions. We rely on a dataset including vocalizations of Maine Coon and European Shorthair breeds emitted in three different contexts: waiting for food, isolation in unfamiliar environment, and brushing. Towards capturing the emission context, we extract two sets of acoustic parameters, i.e., mel-frequency cepstral coefficients and temporal modulation features. Subsequently, these are modeled using a classification scheme based on a directed acyclic graph dividing the problem space. The experiments we conducted demonstrate the superiority of such a scheme over a series of generative and discriminative classification solutions. These results open up new perspectives for deepening our knowledge of acoustic communication between humans and cats and, in general, between humans and animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Giorgio Presti
- Department of Computer Science, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | | | - Monica Battini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Simona Cannas
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Clara Palestrini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Silvana Mattiello
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Therapeutic for all? Observational assessments of therapy canine stress in an on-campus stress-reduction program. J Vet Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
31
|
Welfare considerations: Salivary cortisol concentrations on frequency of therapy dog visits in an outpatient hospital setting: A pilot study. J Vet Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
32
|
Grigg EK, Hart LA. Enhancing Success of Veterinary Visits for Clients With Disabilities and an Assistance Dog or Companion Animal: A Review. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:44. [PMID: 30859106 PMCID: PMC6397855 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite increasing information on enhancing client communication and compliance/adherence in veterinary medicine, literature focusing on special cases remains limited: working with clients with special needs, challenges or disabilities, or when the patient is an assistance or emotional support animal. This paper summarizes current recommendations on how best to build successful working relationships with these clients, including action items to implement in practice. In addition, this paper reviews current literature on important considerations for care of assistance dogs as patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma K Grigg
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Lynette A Hart
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Combining Actigraph Link and PetPace Collar Data to Measure Activity, Proximity, and Physiological Responses in Freely Moving Dogs in a Natural Environment. Animals (Basel) 2018; 8:ani8120230. [PMID: 30518086 PMCID: PMC6316215 DOI: 10.3390/ani8120230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The Actigraph accelerometry monitors, the most widely used and extensively validated devices for measuring physical activity in humans, have also been validated for use in dogs. The ActiGraph GT9X Link monitor has Bluetooth Smart technology and a proximity-tagging feature that potentially allows for the measurement of distance between subjects, e.g., between human caretakers and their dog(s). The PetPace Smart-collar is a non-invasive wireless collar that collects important health markers, including heart beats, variation in the intervals between heartbeats, breaths per minute, and position data (lying, sitting, standing), in addition to activity. The purpose of this study was to determine whether combining data from the Actigraph monitor and PetPace collar would provide reliable pulse, respiration, and heart rate variability results during various activity levels in dogs, and whether these variables were affected by the absence or presence of their caretakers. Abstract Although several studies have examined the effects of an owner’s absence and presence on a dog’s physiological responses under experimental conditions over short periods of time (minutes), little is known about the effects of proximity between humans and freely moving dogs under natural conditions over longer periods of time (days). The first aim of our study was to determine whether the combined data generated from the PetPace Collar and Actigraph Link accelerometer provide reliable pulse, respiration, and heart rate variability results during sedentary, light-moderate, and vigorous bouts in 11 freely moving dogs in a foster caretaker environment over 10–15 days. The second aim was to determine the effects of proximity (absence and presence of caretaker) and distance (caretaker and dog within 0–2 m) on the dogs’ physiological responses. Aim 1 results: Pulse and respiration were higher during light-moderate bouts compared to sedentary bouts, and higher at rest while the dogs were standing and sitting vs. lying. Heart rate variability (HRV) was not different between activity levels or position. Aim 2 results: During sedentary bouts, pulse and respiration were higher, and HRV lower, when there was a proximity signal (caretaker present) compared to no proximity signal (caretaker absent). Using multiple regression models, we found that activity, position, distance, and signal presence were predictors of physiological response in individual dogs during sedentary bouts. Our results suggest that combining data collected from Actigraph GT9X and PetPace monitors will provide useful information, both collectively and individually, on dogs’ physiological responses during activity, in various positions, and in proximity to their human caretaker.
Collapse
|
34
|
González-Ramírez MT, Vanegas-Farfano M, Landero-Hernández R. Differences in stress and happiness between owners who perceive their dogs as well behaved or poorly behaved when they are left alone. J Vet Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2018.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
35
|
Melco AL, Goldman L, Fine AH, Peralta JM. Investigation of Physiological and Behavioral Responses in Dogs Participating in Animal-Assisted Therapy with Children Diagnosed with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2018; 23:10-28. [PMID: 30376724 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2018.1536979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated the impact that participation in sessions with children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has on therapy dogs. Nine certified therapy dogs were paired for 6 sessions with groups of 3-4 children. Sessions consisted of 5 different activities. Activities 1 and 5 involved interactions solely with each dog and their owner, as a control. Activities 2-4 consisted of interactions with the dogs and the children which included social skills training, dog training, and reading in the company of dogs. One-zero interval sampling of stress-associated behaviors was conducted at 20-second intervals for a 10-minute duration during each of the 5 activities. At the end of each activity, heart rate was monitored, and a saliva sample was obtained for cortisol analysis. Dogs demonstrated only occasional behavioral responses and no significant findings related to cortisol or heart rate when the different activities were compared. The results indicate that with proper supervision and well-trained therapy staff, including suitable therapy dogs and their handlers, canine stress can be minimal in a therapy setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L Melco
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, USA
| | - Larry Goldman
- Department of Psychology and Sociology, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, USA
| | - Aubrey H Fine
- Department of Education, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, USA
| | - Jose M Peralta
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
McCullough A, Jenkins MA, Ruehrdanz A, Gilmer MJ, Olson J, Pawar A, Holley L, Sierra-Rivera S, Linder DE, Pichette D, Grossman NJ, Hellman C, Guérin NA, O’Haire ME. Physiological and behavioral effects of animal-assisted interventions on therapy dogs in pediatric oncology settings. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
37
|
Glenk LM. Current Perspectives on Therapy Dog Welfare in Animal-Assisted Interventions. Animals (Basel) 2017; 7:E7. [PMID: 28157145 PMCID: PMC5332928 DOI: 10.3390/ani7020007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Research into the effects of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) has primarily addressed human health outcomes. In contrast, only few publications deal with the therapy dog experience of AAIs. This paper provides an overview on potential welfare threats that therapy dogs may encounter and presents the results of a review of available studies on welfare indicators for therapy dogs during AAIs. Previous investigations used physiological and behavioral welfare indicators and dog handler surveys to identify work-related stress. Research outcomes are discussed in the light of strengths and weaknesses of the methods used. Study results suggest that frequency and duration of AAI sessions, novelty of the environment, controllability, age and familiarity of recipients modulate animal welfare indicators. However, this review reveals that currently, clear conclusions on how the well-being of dogs is influenced by the performance in AAIs are lacking due to the heterogeneity of programs, recipient and session characteristics, small dog sample sizes and methodological limitations. This paper further aimed to identify unresolved difficulties in previous research to pave the way for future investigations supporting the applicability of scientific findings in practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Maria Glenk
- Comparative Medicine, The Interuniversity Messerli Research Institute of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University Vienna and University of Vienna, Vienna 1210, Austri.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
|