Exploring horse owners' and caretakers' perceptions of emotions and associated behaviors in horses

Horse Owners' Knowledge of Fundamental Care and their Perceptions on the Implementation of a Mandatory Certificate of Knowledge

The aims of this study were to first determine the extent of owners' fundamental knowledge of equine care, second, gain their opinions on the implementation of a mandatory certificate of knowledge and third, to investigate the association of certification on horse owner knowledge. An online survey comprising 23 questions (18 closed, 5 open) was distributed worldwide via snowball sampling, and completed by 1847 horse owners who were all ≥18 years old from 17 different countries. Almost all (96%, n = 1781) completed surveys were usable. Just over half (52%) of participants held a current equine knowledge certification, and 59% believed a mandatory certificate of knowledge should be necessary to buy, own, or sell a horse. Horse owners with an equine certificate of knowledge were more likely to be in favor of a mandatory certificate (Pearson's Chi-squared = 50.79, df = 1, p < 0.0001). The mean correctly answered knowledge questions was 68%, indicating that approximately 1/3 of horse owners lacked fundamental horse care knowledge. Further examination indicated that participating horse owners showed the least understanding in the behavioral interactions domain (ANOVA F(4, 24) = 4.98, p < 0.01), specifically in relation to pain recognition and learning theory terminology. Arguably, this deficit in knowledge and likely correct application increases the risk of owners using misinformed or inappropriate techniques to manage horse behavior and training, predisposing the horse to experiencing a sub-optimal quality of life. Overall no significant difference was found between the total correct scores of horse owners with or without a certificate (ANOVA F(1, 56) = 0.78, p > 0.05); however, a series of Chi-squared tests revealed that for the more complex questions, horse owners with a certificate scored better than those without (all p < 0.05). Further work is needed to develop an evidence-based assessment framework if mandatory certification of horse owners is to become an effective tool for improving horse welfare and quality of life.

Comparison of daily heart rate and heart rate variability in trained and sedentary aged horses

Athletic horses are usually retired from equestrian competition at an advanced age. Aged horses may then continue to have regular exercise or are sedentary. The comparison of autonomic regulation between sedentary aged horses (SAH) and trained aged horses (TAH) after retirement remains unpublished. This study compared daily heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability between 11 SAH and 11 TAH over 22 h (07.00 h to 05.00 h on an alternate day) and during the day and night. An increase in mean beat-to-beat (RR) intervals (p < 0.01-0.0001) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) index (p < 0.05-0.0001), corresponding to the decreased HR and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) index (p < 0.01-0.0001), was observed at night. Compared to SAH, lowered mean HR and SNS index, corresponding to elevated mean RR intervals and very-low-frequency bands, were marked in TAH during the day (p < 0.05 for all variables). Whereas the standard deviation of the RR intervals index was higher in TAH than in SAH during the day and night (p < 0.05 for both periods). It was suggested that aged horses with different physical activities revealed distinct autonomic responses. TAH demonstrated higher HRV than SAH during the day. A decreased HR in TAH is prone to result from a reduced SNS role, leading to a shift toward more PNS activity during the day. More research is warranted to determine to what extent the autonomic regulation is modulated by accompanying higher exercise volume or programmed exercise in aged horses.

The Easiest Becomes the Rule: Beliefs, Knowledge and Attitudes of Equine Practitioners and Enthusiasts Regarding Horse Welfare

Inadequate management conditions can impair the welfare of captive-bred horses. Understanding individuals' viewpoints and the factors influencing their decisions about adopting or avoiding certain practices may provide insights into their motivations and decision-making processes. This is particularly relevant in the equestrian community, where equine practitioners and enthusiasts often engage in harmful practices. We explored the beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes of equine practitioners and enthusiasts about horse welfare and the barriers that prevent them from employing better management practices that are essential to promoting horses' welfare. The study consisted of in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted in person with 31 individuals directly involved in the equestrian environment in Brazil. Responses were analyzed through thematic analysis with a data-driven deductive approach. Participants' beliefs, knowledge and attitudes to horse welfare were divided into three themes. The first theme, "Let the horse be a horse", captured participants' perceptions about how physical and mental aspects related to the nature and welfare of horses. The second theme, "Everyone does it like that", includes the social norms that influence decisions about the practices that impact on the welfare of the horses. The third theme, "Beyond utopia: how and why horses are managed the way they are", covered barriers that participants perceived as impediments to the use of best practices for the welfare of horses. While participants demonstrated awareness of welfare issues and acknowledged factors that negatively impact horses, there was a notable discrepancy between this knowledge and the implementation of improved management practices. This could be explained by several perceived barriers to implementing management practices that could enhance horse welfare, including lack of financial resources, limited physical space, shortage of qualified labor, time constraints, inadequate tools, and insufficient knowledge. Additionally, we identified deeply rooted social norms within the equestrian community and culturally established practices that limit approaches to horse welfare. Participants underscored the influence of these norms and different interpretations of "letting the horse be a horse" based on the horse's value and purpose. Concerning low-value horses, the primary justifications for stall housing and concentrated feeding were linked to elevated costs involved in spatial demands and labor; in contrast, for high-value horses used in performance and aesthetics, the arguments shifted to potential benefits to the horses' well-being. From an ethical perspective, ideally, individuals should refrain from owning horses if they cannot ensure the animals' welfare. Additionally, if the equestrian community neglects public attitudes towards animal welfare, it risks eroding its social license.

'It's more emotionally based': Prince Edward Island horse owner perspectives of horse weight management

Horse obesity is a growing concern that can result in negative welfare. The role horse owners play in horse weight management is not well understood. This study aimed to: (1) explore the attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of owners with overweight or obese horses regarding their horses' weight; and (2) understand the motivators and barriers for owners to implement, improve and maintain weight management-related strategies. A semi-structured interview guide based on the Theoretical Domains Framework was developed. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 24 owners in Prince Edward Island, Canada whose horse(s) were previously classified as overweight or obese by a veterinarian. Interviews were analysed using template analysis, organising patterns in the data into a codebook and overarching themes. Owners believed horse weight management was important, however, their perceived complexity of the issue made the implementation of the weight management practices difficult. Owners held conflicting perceptions, viewing overweight horses as well cared for, yet recognised these horses were at increased risk for negative health outcomes. Ultimately, participants felt emotionally torn about compromising their horse's mental well-being to address weight issues. Owners considered the practicality of weight-management strategies, the strategies' effectiveness, and whether recommended strategies aligned with their beliefs regarding good horse care practices. Knowledge was embedded into owners' understanding of horse weight, however, some highlighted that traditional knowledge dominates the equine industry hindering systemic industry change. Increased understanding of the effectiveness and impacts of weight management strategies on horses and fostering a society that recognises and accepts horses within a healthy weight range are warranted.

Horses discriminate between human facial and vocal expressions of sadness and joy

Communication of emotions plays a key role in intraspecific social interactions and likely in interspecific interactions. Several studies have shown that animals perceive human joy and anger, but few studies have examined other human emotions, such as sadness. In this study, we conducted a cross-modal experiment, in which we showed 28 horses two soundless videos simultaneously, one showing a sad, and one a joyful human face. These were accompanied by either a sad or joyful voice. The number of horses whose first look to the video that was incongruent with the voice was longer than their first look to the congruent video was higher than chance, suggesting that horses could form cross-modal representations of human joy and sadness. Moreover, horses were more attentive to the videos of joy and looked at them for longer, more frequently, and more rapidly than the videos of sadness. Their heart rates tended to increase when they heard joy and to decrease when they heard sadness. These results show that horses are able to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of joy and sadness and may form cross-modal representations of these emotions; they also are more attracted to joyful faces than to sad faces and seem to be more aroused by a joyful voice than a sad voice. Further studies are needed to better understand how horses perceive the range of human emotions, and we propose that future experiments include neutral stimuli as well as emotions with different arousal levels but a same valence.

How to Understand Them? A Review of Emotional Indicators in Horses

Stabled horses often experience negative emotions due to the inappropriate living conditions imposed by humans. However, identifying what emotions horses experience and what can trigger positive and negative emotions in stabled horses can be challenging. In this article we present a brief history of the study of emotions and models that explain emotions from a scientific point of view and the physiological bases and functions of emotions. We then review and discuss physiological and behavioral indicators and cognitive bias tests developed to assess emotions in horses. Hormone concentrations, body temperature, the position of the ears, facial expressions and behaviors, such as approach and avoidance behaviors, can provide valuable information about emotional states in horses. The cognitive bias paradigm is a recent and robust tool to assess emotions in horses. Knowing how to evaluate the intensity and frequency of an individual's emotions can guide horse owners and caretakers to identify practices and activities that should be stimulated, avoided or even banned from the individual's life, in favor of a life worth living. The development and validation of novel indicators of emotions considering positive and negative contexts can help in these actions.

Horse Housing on Prince Edward Island, Canada: Attitudes and Experiences Related to Keeping Horses Outdoors and in Groups

Limited research has assessed the "human dimension" of horse care. The aims of this study were to (1) understand horse owner attitudes toward horse welfare when kept outdoors versus indoors and in groups versus individually, (2) compare horse owner attitudes toward horse welfare with the ways in which they house their horses, and (3) explore horse owner reasons for and challenges with their horses' housing. Seventy-six horse owners in Prince Edward Island, Canada completed a questionnaire. Non-parametric tests and quantitative content analysis were used for data analysis. Consistent with the way horses were kept, most (82-96%) owners agreed that horses' physical health, mental well-being, and natural living were better when kept outdoors and in groups. Fewer (64-68%) participants agreed that the horses' standard of care was better when kept outdoors or in groups. Results show associations between owners whose attitudes suggest indoor and/or individual housing is better for horse welfare and keeping their horses indoors part-time and/or individually. Two overarching themes were developed from owners' responses regarding their reasons and challenges related to the ways in which horses were housed: horse-centered and owner-centered care. The results indicate that horse owners' choices about their horses' housing correspond to beliefs about improved horse welfare.

Pet Owner Perception of Ferret Boredom and Consequences for Housing, Husbandry, and Environmental Enrichment

Boredom is a potential chronic but overlooked animal welfare problem. Caused by monotony, sub-optimal stimulation, and restrictive housing, boredom can therefore affect companion animals, particularly those traditionally caged, such as ferrets. We surveyed owners' (n = 621) perceptions of ferrets' capacity to experience boredom, behaviours they associate with it, and whether their perception of their ferrets' capacity for boredom influenced training techniques, housing, and environmental enrichment (EE). Most (93.0%) owners believed that ferrets could experience boredom, but owners who doubted that ferrets experience boredom (7.0%) provided slightly but significantly fewer EE types to their ferrets. Heat map and classification tree analysis showed that owners identified scratching at enclosure walls (n = 420) and excessive sleeping (n = 312) as distinctive behavioural indicators of ferret boredom. Repetitive pacing (n = 381), yawning (n = 191), and resting with eyes open (n = 171) were also suggested to indicate ferret boredom, but these overlapped with other states. Finally, ferret owners suggested social housing, tactile interaction with humans, and exploration as most important for preventing boredom. These results suggest that pet ferrets are at risk of reduced welfare from owners who doubt they can experience boredom, highlighting an opportunity to improve welfare through information dissemination. We recommend further investigation into ferret boredom capacity, behavioural indicators, and mitigation strategies.

Welfare assessment of horses and mules used in recreational and muleteer work in the Colombian coffee region

The welfare of working equids in developing countries is sometimes threatened due to the limited resources and/or knowledge of their owners. The objective of this study is to evaluate the welfare of creole horses and mules using a validated protocol that assesses animal-based indicators. A total of 160 horses and 40 mules from three municipalities in the Colombian coffee-growing region were evaluated by means of direct observation of health and behavioral parameters. A descriptive analysis of the variables expressed in proportions was performed. Interactions between the different measurements were examined using the Chi-squared test. Spearman correlations were used to relate the measurements. Horses and mules demonstrated friendly behavior in front of the evaluators (78.13 and 61.54%, respectively); apathetic or severely depressed behavior was low (10.7 and 17.5%, P &gt; 0.05). Significant differences in body condition score (BCS) were observed between mules and horses (P &lt; 0.05); eighty percent of the mules and 54.4% of the horses exhibited a healthy body condition score (3 or more on a scale of 1 to 5). Less than 15% of the animals had eye problems, limb deformities, and gait abnormalities. Injuries to the head, withers, spine, ribs/flank, hindquarters, and hind legs were observed in a frequency between 12.5 and 30.43% of the animals, with a higher frequency in horses (P &lt; 0.05). Weak correlations (R2 coefficient &lt; 0.5), although statistically significant, were observed between low body conditions and the presence of skin and deeper tissue lesions, systemic health abnormalities, and limb problems (P &lt; 0.05). The results indicate that owners care for their animals. However, the presence of skin and deep tissue lesions, especially in horses, suggests that they are subjected to high workloads. Therefore, it is essential to train owners in aspects related to the importance of providing their equids with adequate rest periods to recover from work and develop actions to strengthen human-equine interaction.

Horse welfare: A joint assessment of four categories of behavioural indicators using the AWIN protocol, scan sampling and surveys

Domesticated horses ( Equus caballus) can be exposed to a compromised welfare state and detecting a deterioration in welfare is essential to modify the animals' living conditions appropriately. This study focused on four categories of behavioural indicators, as markers of poor welfare: stereotypies, aggressiveness towards humans, unresponsiveness to the environment and hypervigilance. In the scientific literature, at least three assessment methods can be used to evaluate them: the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) protocol, behavioural observations using scans and surveys. The question remains as to whether all these three methods allow an effective assessment of the four categories of behavioural indicators. To address this issue, the repeatability at a three-month interval and convergent validity of each measure (correlations between methods) were investigated on 202 horses housed in loose boxes. Overall, the repeatability and convergent validity were limited, highlighting the difficulty in assessing these indicators in horses. However, stereotypies and aggressiveness measures showed higher repeatability and convergent validity than those of unresponsiveness to the environment and hypervigilance. Behavioural observations using scans enabled the four categories of behavioural indicators to be detected more effectively. Suggestions of improvements are proposed for one-off measures such as those performed with the AWIN protocol. Regardless of the assessment method, very limited correlations were observed between the four categories of behavioural indicators, suggesting that they should all be included in a set of indicators used to assess the welfare state of horses, in conjunction with physiological and health measures.

Australian Community and Health Professionals Perceptions of Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy

Mental health conditions are increasingly prevalent in the Australian population, and despite the large evidence-based support for contemporary treatments, there are barriers which inhibit their efficacy. Thus, there is a perceived need for therapists to consider other therapeutic options which have potential to enhance treatment outcomes. There is increasing acceptance for complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) among general practitioners and clients/general community. Specifically, more than 70% of Australians utilize CAM. Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is an underutilized, culturally sensitive, complementary therapy, which has the potential to mitigate barriers of conventional therapy. The present study aimed to determine the level of knowledge about and general acceptance of EAP as a treatment for general psychopathology symptomology within community members and health professionals. The current sample included 144 community members and 55 health professionals, all with Australian citizenship. Data analysis comprised the independent t-test and two hierarchical multiple regressions. Results indicated that community members are significantly more accepting of EAP as a treatment compared to health professionals. Of the predictors tested, higher social support and openness within community members were significant predictors of accepting perceptions, and rural location was the only significant predictor for health professional's accepting perceptions of EAP. This is one of the first studies to investigate perceptions of EAP outside the EAP field and through comparison between community members and health professionals. The current study identifies the need for future research to further investigate perceptions of EAP among Australian health professionals.

Detecting Welfare in a Non-Verbal Species: Social/Cultural Biases and Difficulties in Horse Welfare Assessment

Simple Summary

There is a paradox about the welfare of horses in the domestic situation: on the one hand, horses are beloved partners for most owners, but on the other hand, scientific studies are converging to show that there is a high prevalence of welfare problems. There seems to be a mismatch between theoretical knowledge and field applications. In this review, we aim at disentangling the possible factors explaining such a paradox. Among them, we consider the impact of anthropomorphic and cultural biases, popular beliefs, but also overexposure to horses with compromised welfare state, which can change owners’ representation of what is a “normal” horse, on the undervaluation of horse welfare state. We suggest that, rather than simply having knowledge on what should be done, identifying the horse welfare state using validated animal-based indicators is essential to identify and promote best practices.

Abstract

Horses were domesticated for more than 5000 years and have been one of the most emblematic species living alongside humans. This long-shared history would suggest that horses are well known and well understood, but scientific data raise many concerns about the welfare state of most domestic horses suggesting that many aspects have been largely misunderstood. In the present review, we will examine some of the possible human factors that may explain the huge prevalence of welfare problems, despite horses being of special importance to humans. First of all, as horses are non-verbal, current management practices rely upon what one thinks is good for them, which opens the way to subjective interpretations and projections, based on one’s own subjective experience but probably still more on cultural/social norms and influences, traditions and beliefs. The lack of recognition, identification, or even the misinterpretation of signals are other potential reasons for welfare issues. Lastly, the over-exposure to animals with expressions of compromised welfare may lead to lower sensitivity of owners/professionals. That is why we lastly suggest that instead of simply providing information on what to do, we should promote validated visible indicators that leave less room for personal interpretation.

Exploratory Behaviours of Primitive Horses Based on Konik: A Preliminary Study

This study aimed at assessing the behaviour of Konik geldings and mares, kept in a stable and in a free-range system, during behavioural tests regarded as a determinant of the exploration urge. A total of 19 Konik horses kept in individual stables and in a free-range system were included in the study. The experiment was conducted in five phases separated by five-day breaks. A one-stage passive human test was performed during the first phase, a three-stage active human test-2nd phase, a three-stage unknown object test-3rd phase, a two-stage unknown surface test-4th phase, and a one-stage test of social isolation-5th phase. Ten attributes were analysed, including the horse sex and the keeping system. The results were also correlated with one another. Konik horses were found to show the urge to explore, although their behavioural responses are individual and stimulus dependent. In many cases, the horse sex and the keeping system influence the exploratory behaviour, although it is manifested by a greater intensity in geldings than in mares, and in free-range horses than in those kept in a stable. The study is regarded as preliminary due to the small number of horses in the study groups.

Determining a Welfare Prioritization for Horses Using a Delphi Method

Simple Summary

Horses are used for a wide range of different purposes and may be vulnerable to a large number of different welfare issues, some of which are unique to equines, such as responses to being ridden or trained. Compared to farmed livestock, their welfare has received less attention, but concern for their welfare is increasing. Welfare issues can arise from the environments in which animals are kept, how they are treated by their human caregivers and their health. To determine which of the issues are most important and may need the greatest attention in terms of research effort or owner education, we used a process of eliciting expert opinion. Through a series of surveys and ranking of issues, we determined that, in the opinion of equine experts, the most important issues for horses were poor disease prevention, issues arising when old or sick horses are not promptly euthanized, lack of owner knowledge of welfare needs of horses, fear and stress involved in horse use, inability of owners to recognize pain behaviour, obesity and inadequate feeding practices. Prioritizing different welfare issues can help to focus attention on the most pressing or severe issues causing the greatest amount of suffering.

Abstract

Equine welfare issues are receiving increasing attention in the UK, but welfare problems can arise from a wide range of causes. In order to identify the most important welfare concerns for horses, we used a Delphi method with 19 equine welfare experts. An initial list of 84 equine welfare issues was generated using an online discussion board and NVivo thematic analysis. Subsequently, experts ranked these welfare issues for perceived prevalence, severity and duration of suffering associated with each issue on a 6-point Likert scale. All issues with a mean score of 3 or above (n = 37) were included in subsequent rounds. Finally, a subset of experts attended a two-day workshop to determine the final priority list of welfare issues. The welfare issues perceived to be most prevalent were lack of biosecurity, delayed euthanasia, lack of owner knowledge of equine welfare needs, fear and stress from use, and obesity. The issues considered to cause greatest suffering for individual horses were delayed euthanasia, lack of recognition by owners of pain behaviour, large worm burdens, obesity and being fed unsuitable diets for equine feeding behaviour. These outcomes can help to focus research and education interventions on the most pressing welfare issues for horses.

Why Should Human-Animal Interactions Be Included in Research of Working Equids' Welfare?

Simple Summary

Appropriate strategies aimed at improving the welfare of working equids should include the assessment of their welfare status, as well as the identification of the human attributes that influence owner-equine interactions. From a human´s point of view, empathy, attitudes towards animals, perception of animal pain and the owner´s locus of control are some of the psychological attributes that modulate the human-equine relationships that can affect equids’ welfare. There is, however, still little research dedicated to identifying and assessing the owner’s psychological attributes that underlie their behaviours, and that may be implicated in the welfare of their working equids. This review aims to point out why the inclusion of human psychological attributes that modulate human-animal interactions, can benefit welfare research in working equids. We recommend that in order to advance in the improvement of working equids’ welfare on a global scale, an integral understanding of those human psychological attributes that influence the owner’s behaviour and modulate owner-equine interactions must be established and taken into account in future studies.

Abstract

The livelihood of working horses’ owners and their families is intimately linked to the welfare of their equids. A proper understanding of human-animal interactions, as well as the main factors that modulate them, is essential for establishing strategies oriented to improve the welfare of animals and their caretakers. To date, there is still a paucity of research dedicated to the identification and assessment of the human psychological attributes that affect the owner–equine interaction, and how these could affect the welfare of working equids. However, some studies have shown that empathy, attitudes towards animals, human perception of animal pain and the owner´s locus of control are some of the psychological attributes that participate in human-equine interactions and that these can result in poor welfare of working equids. A better understanding of the relationship between human attributes and equids’ welfare can provide an opportunity to improve the quality of interactions between owners and their working equids and thus improve their welfare. This review aims to explain why the inclusion of human psychological attributes that modulate the human-animal interactions can benefit welfare research in working equids. The role that empathy, perception of animal pain and locus of control play in the promotion of good welfare in working equids is emphasized.

Examining Canadian Equine Industry Participants' Perceptions of Horses and Their Welfare

The diversity of the Canadian equine industry makes determining baseline attitudes and beliefs a challenge. Adult members of the Canadian equine industry (n = 901) participated in an online survey to report demographic information and views on the role of horses and their ability to experience affective states. Questions regarding the welfare state of all horses in the industry, potential ways to address welfare issues, and eight short scenarios were presented. Qualitative analysis, descriptive statistics, and a Chi-squared test for independence examined survey results and potential relationships. Participants strongly believed horses were capable of feeling positive and negative emotions, particularly pain and fear, but rarely were these beliefs reflected in their answers regarding aspects of equine welfare, which may be due to the large bias in these beliefs. Lack of knowledge and financial difficulties were noted as the biggest threats to equine welfare. Overall, there was widespread agreement regarding the presence of welfare issues within the equine industry, but opinions were more divided regarding how to best address them and which horses were most at risk. Understanding these perceptions may be useful to direct educational programs and industry-wide initiatives to address equine welfare through human behaviour change.