Society of Interventional Radiology Consensus Guidelines for the Periprocedural Management of Thrombotic and Bleeding Risk in Patients Undergoing Percutaneous Image-Guided Interventions-Part I: Review of Anticoagulation Agents and Clinical Considerations: Endorsed by the Canadian Association for Interventional Radiology and the Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe

Renal mass biopsy - a practical and clinicopathologically relevant approach to diagnosis

Advancements in imaging modalities have increased the frequency of renal mass discovery. Imaging has typically been considered sufficient to guide management for a large proportion of these tumours, but renal mass biopsies (RMBs) have an increasing role in determining malignancy and can be a valuable tool for preventing unnecessary surgery in patients with benign tumours. A structured approach should be used to help to navigate the expanding repertoire of renal tumours, many of which are molecularly defined. In terms of tumour subtyping, the pathologist's strategy should focus on stratifying patients into clinically different prognostic groups according to our current knowledge of tumour behaviour, including benign, low-grade or indolent, intermediate malignant or highly aggressive. Crucial pathological features and morphological mimicry of tumours can alter the tumour's prognostic group. Thus, pathologists and urologists can use RMB to select patients with tumours at a reduced risk of progression, which can be safely managed with active surveillance within a tailored imaging schedule, versus tumours for which ablation or surgical intervention is indicated. RMB is also crucial in the oncological setting to distinguish between different high-grade tumours and guide tailored management strategies.

Feasibility and safety of bipolar radiofrequency track cautery during percutaneous image-guided abdominal biopsy procedures

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility and safety of using a bipolar radiofrequency track cautery device during percutaneous image-guided abdominal biopsy procedures in at-risk patients.

METHODS

Forty-two patients (26-79 years old; female 44%) with at least one bleeding risk factor who underwent an abdominal image-guided (CT or US) biopsy and intended bipolar radiofrequency track cautery (BRTC) were retrospectively studied. An 18G radiofrequency electrode was inserted through a 17G biopsy introducer needle immediately following coaxial 18G core biopsy, to cauterize the biopsy track using temperature control. Bleeding risk factors, technical success, and adverse events were recorded.

RESULTS

BRTC was technically successful in 41/42 (98%) of procedures; in one patient, the introducer needle retracted from the liver due to respiratory motion prior to BRTC. BRTC following percutaneous biopsy was applied during 41 abdominal biopsy procedures (renal mass = 12, renal parenchyma = 10, liver mass = 9, liver parenchyma = 5, splenic mass or parenchyma = 4, gastrohepatic mass = 1). All patients had one or more of the following risk factors: high-risk organ (spleen or renal parenchyma), hypervascular mass, elevated prothrombin time, renal insufficiency, thrombocytopenia, recent anticoagulation or anticoagulation not withheld for recommended interval, cirrhosis, intraprocedural hypertension, brisk back bleeding observed from the introducer needle, or subcapsular tumor location. No severe adverse events (grade 3 or higher) occurred. Two (2/41, 5%) mild (grade 1) bleeding events did not cause symptoms or require intervention.

CONCLUSION

Bipolar radiofrequency track cautery was feasible and safe during percutaneous image-guided abdominal biopsy procedures. IRB approval: MBG 2022P002277.

Bleeding Events After Image-Guided Breast Biopsies: Comparison of Patients Temporarily Discontinuing Versus Maintaining Antithrombotic Therapy During Biopsy

BACKGROUND. Antithrombic (AT) therapy is commonly temporarily discontinued before breast core needle biopsy (CNB), introducing risks of thrombotic events and diagnostic delay. OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this article was to compare the frequency of postbiopsy bleeding events among patients without AT use, patients temporarily discontinuing AT therapy, and patients maintaining AT therapy during breast CNB. METHODS. This retrospective study included 5302 patients (median age, 52 years) who underwent image-guided breast or axillary CNB between January 1, 2014, and December 31, 2019. From January 1, 2014, to December 31, 2016, patients temporarily discontinued all AT therapy for 5 days before CNB; from January 1, 2017, to December 31, 2019, patients maintained AT therapy during CNB. Immediate postbiopsy mammograms were reviewed for imaging-apparent hematoma. Patients were called 24-48 hours after biopsy and asked regarding palpable hematoma and breast bruise. The EMR was reviewed for clinically significant postbiopsy hematoma (i.e., hematoma requiring drainage, primary care or emergency department visit for persistent symptoms, or hospital admission). Bleeding events were compared among groups, including Firth bias-reduced multivariable logistic regression analysis. RESULTS. During CNB, 4665 patients were not receiving AT therapy, 423 temporarily discontinued AT therapy, and 214 maintained AT therapy. Imaging-apparent hematoma occurred in 3% of patients without AT use, 6% of patients discontinuing AT therapy, and 7% of patients maintaining AT therapy (p = .60 [discontinuing vs maintaining]). Palpable hematoma occurred in 2% of patients without AT use, 4% of patients maintaining AT therapy, and 4% of patients discontinuing AT therapy (p = .92 [discontinuing vs maintaining]). Breast bruise occurred in 2% of patients without AT use, 1% of patients discontinuing AT therapy, and 6% of patients maintaining AT therapy (p < .001 [discontinuing vs maintaining]). In multivariable analysis adjusting for age, biopsy imaging modality, needle gauge, number of biopsy samples, and pathologic result, discontinued AT therapy (using maintained AT therapy as reference) was not a significant independent predictor of imaging-apparent hematoma (p = .23) or palpable hematoma (p = .91) but independently predicted decreased risk of bruise (OR = 0.11, p < .001). No patient developed clinically significant postbiopsy hematoma. CONCLUSION. Frequencies of imaging-apparent and palpable hematoma were not significantly different between patients temporarily discontinuing versus maintaining AT therapy. CLINICAL IMPACT. The findings support the safety of continuing AT therapy during CNB. Patients who maintain AT therapy should be counseled regarding risk of bruise.

A Multicenter Retrospective Cohort Study Evaluating the Clinical Outcomes of Patients with Coagulopathy Undergoing Transcatheter Arterial Embolization (TAE) for Acute Non-Neurovascular Bleeding

Background and Objectives: Transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) is the mainstay of treatment for acute major hemorrhage, even in patients with coagulopathy and spontaneous bleeding. Coagulopathy is associated with worsening bleeding severity and higher mortality and clinical failure rates. Furthermore, some unanswered questions remain, such as the definition of coagulopathy, the indication for TAE or conservative treatment, and the choice of embolic agent. This study aims to assess the efficacy and safety of TAE for spontaneous non-neurovascular acute bleeding in patients with coagulopathy. Materials and Methods: This study is a multicenter analysis of retrospectively collected data of consecutive patients with coagulopathy who had undergone, from January 2018 to May 2023, transcatheter arterial embolization for the management of spontaneous hemorrhages. Results: During the study interval (January 2018-May 2023), 120 patients with coagulopathy underwent TAE for spontaneous non-neurovascular acute bleeding. The abdominal wall was the most common bleeding site (72.5%). The most commonly used embolic agent was polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) particles or microspheres (25.0%), whereas coils and gelatin sponge together accounted for 32.5% of the embolic agents used. Technical success was achieved in all cases, with a 92.5% clinical success rate related to 9 cases of rebleeding. Complications were recorded in 12 (10%) patients. Clinical success was significantly better in the group of patients who underwent correction of the coagulopathy within 24 h of TAE. Conclusions: Transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) is effective and safe for the management of acute non-neurovascular bleeding in patients with coagulopathy. Correction of coagulopathy should not delay TAE and vice versa, as better clinical outcomes were noted in the subgroup of patients undergoing correction of coagulopathy within 24 h of TAE.

Appendix to the Society of Interventional Radiology Consensus Guidelines for the Periprocedural Management of Thrombotic and Bleeding Risk in Patients Undergoing Percutaneous Image-Guided Interventions: Pediatric Considerations

PURPOSE

To provide guidance on the use of anticoagulant and antithrombotic agents in pediatric patients undergoing interventional radiology procedures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A multidisciplinary writing group conducted a comprehensive literature search to identify studies on the topic of interest. Recommendations were developed for procedural risk and medication dosage and withholding. A modified Delphi technique was used to achieve consensus agreement on the recommendations.

RESULTS

A total of 24 studies, including systematic reviews and meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, and prospective and retrospective cohort studies, were identified as relevant. The expert writing group agreed on procedural risk categorization, laboratory testing thresholds, and medication dosage and withholding recommendations specific to pediatric practice. They additionally described the nuances of anticoagulation in clinical conditions specific to pediatrics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Society of Interventional Radiology recommends following the guidance provided in the document when developing multidisciplinary management protocols for anticoagulation and antithrombotic treatment in pediatric patients undergoing interventional radiology procedures.

Plasma transfusion practices: A multicentre electronic audit

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Plasma is often transfused to patients with bleeding or requiring invasive procedures and with abnormal tests of coagulation. Chart audits find half of plasma transfusions unnecessary, resulting in avoidable complications and costs. This multicentre electronic audit was conducted to determine the proportion of plasma transfused without an indication and/or at a sub-therapeutic dose.

METHODS

Data were extracted on adult inpatients in 2017 at five academic sites from the hospital electronic chart, laboratory information systems and the Canadian Institute for Health Information Discharge Abstract Database. Electronic criteria for plasma transfusion outside recommended indications were: (1) international normalized ratio (INR) < 1.5 with no to moderate bleeding; (2) INR ≥ 1.5, with no to mild bleeding and no planned procedures; and (3) no INR before or after plasma infusion. Sub-therapeutic dose was defined as ≤2 units transfused.

RESULTS

In 1 year, 2590 patients received 6088 plasma transfusions encompassing 11,490 units of plasma occurred at the five sites. 77.7% of events were either outside indications or under-dosed. Of these, 34.8% of plasma orders had no indication identified, and 62% of these occurred in non-bleeding patients and no planned procedure with an isolated elevated INR. 70.7% of transfusions were under-dosed. Most plasma transfusions occurred in the intensive care unit or the operating room. Inter-hospital variability in peri-transfusion testing and dosing was observed.

CONCLUSION

The majority of plasma transfusions are sub-optimal. Local hospital culture may be an important driver. Electronic audits, with definitions employed in this study, may be a practical alternative to costly chart audits.

Correcting Coagulopathy for Image-Guided Procedures

Patients with acquired coagulopathy often require percutaneous image-guided invasive procedures for urgent control of hemorrhage or for elective procedures. Routine preprocedural evaluation of coagulopathy previously focused on absolute prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, international normalized ratio, and platelet count values. Now viscoelastic testing and greater understanding of patient- and drug-specific changes in coagulation profiles can yield better coagulation profile data. More specific reversal agents and profiles combine for less generalized and more titrated transfusion or correction algorithms. This article reviews procedural and patient-specific factors for defining both hemorrhagic risk and correction strategies.

Update on Interventional Radiology of the Spine

Interventional radiologists now perform spinal interventions routinely for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. New technologies for the management of spine pathologies have emerged with promising results in terms of safety and efficacy. Interventional radiology techniques in the spine include percutaneous biopsy and therapies for intervertebral disk herniation or spinal stenosis, facet and sacroiliac joint pathologies, vertebral and sacral fractures, and metastases. These techniques can also be easily combined one with the other or to further therapeutic approaches including systemic therapies, surgical approaches, and radiotherapy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current percutaneous imaging-guided interventional radiology techniques in the spine. It will help readers become familiar with the most common indications, learn about different technical considerations during performance, and review the available evidence. Controversies concerning new products and technical approaches are also addressed.

Anticoagulation and Antiplatelet Agents in Peripheral Arterial Interventions

Effective revascularization of peripheral artery disease relies on periprocedural pharmacological regulation of the clotting cascade. Patient-specific factors such as cardiovascular risk factors, contraindications, and individual psychosocial factors must be considered when initiating post revascularization management. Management with anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents is discussed to guide the interventionalist on which therapy may be appropriate for their patient. While exact treatment may be institution and provider dependent, the interventionist must be familiar with the available classes of medications and how they can be prescribed in the postprocedural setting to improve cardiovascular outcomes.

Lowering platelet count threshold to 10,000/µL for peripherally inserted central catheter placement safely conserves blood products

Despite the low risk of peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) insertion-related bleeding, the practice of administering prophylactic platelets varies greatly. Limiting unnecessary blood product transfusions reduces transfusion-related adverse events, financial cost, and delays in care. We assessed the impact of lowering prophylactic platelet administration threshold on blood product utilization patterns and bleeding events. This quasi-experimental study was conducted in an urban academic tertiary medical center. The study population included patients with platelet counts ≥ 10,000/µL and < 50,000/µL undergoing PICC placement in 2018 and 2019 when the minimum platelet thresholds were 50,000/µL and 10,000/µL, respectively. The primary outcome was blood product utilization and the secondary outcome was PICC insertion-related bleeding complications. Thirty-five patients using the 10,000/µL (10 K) platelet threshold and 46 patients using the 50,000/µL (50 K) platelet threshold were enrolled. The 50 K group received more platelets before PICC insertion (0.870 ± 0.885 and 0.143 ± 0.430 pools of platelets-per-person, p < 0.001). No patients experienced clinically significant bleeding. Immediately following PICC insertion, minor bleeding occurred in five patients (two [4.3%] and three [8.6%] in the 50 K and 10 K groups, respectively). Bleeding rates between the two cohorts did not differ (p = 0.647). Lowering the minimum platelet threshold from 50,000/µL to 10,000/µL resulted in less prophylactic platelet and total blood product administration with no appreciable difference in PICC insertion-related bleeding.

Elective percutaneous liver biopsy and use of aspirin

OBJECTIVES

Percutaneous liver biopsy is an essential diagnostic investigation in hepatology. Among complications, which are rare, bleeding is the most feared. Many patients scheduled for a liver biopsy are taking aspirin. Surprisingly no information is available in the literature on this frequent clinical situation. The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) position paper on percutaneous liver biopsy does not specifically recommend stopping low dose aspirin prior to an elective percutaneous liver biopsy. The European Association for the Study of the Liver also remains unspecific without giving clear recommendation on stopping or not low dose aspirin before the procedure. The aim of this study is to document current practice concerning the management of patients scheduled for an elective percutaneous biopsy and taking low dose aspirin.

DESIGN

An online questionnaire was designed to gather data on current practice on the perioperative management of percutaneous liver biopsy and use of aspirin.

SETTINGS

The questionnaire was emailed to AASLD members in September 2018.

PARTICIPANTS

Four hundred sixty six responses were collected.

RESULTS

Seventy eight percent postpone elective percutaneous liver biopsy if International Normalised Ratio is ≥1.5 or Quick ≤50%. Ninety five percent postpone biopsy if platelet count is ≤50,000 × 10⁶ /L. Seventy five percent stop low dose aspirin, on average, 6 days prior to the percutaneous liver biopsy. This choice of management does not seem to be related to previous complications since 86% report not having experienced any bleeding in patients taking low dose aspirin. Nevertheless, this practice has logistic consequences since 61% of the respondents postponed a liver biopsy due to intake of low dose aspirin.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the lack of clear statement in guidelines and evidence supporting this practice, three quarters of physicians practicing in hepatology stop low dose aspirin before elective percutaneous liver biopsy.

Computed tomography-guided microwave ablation for non-small cell lung cancer patients on antithrombotic therapy: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

For non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients on antithrombotic therapy who are treated with microwave ablation (MWA), the transient interruption of antithrombotic agents may increase the risk of thromboembolism, and continuation of antithrombotic agents may increase the risk of intraprocedural hemorrhage. This retrospective cohort study aimed to explore the safety of MWA in patients with NSCLC on antithrombotic therapy.

METHODS

A total of 572 patients with NSCLC (antithrombotic therapy group: n=84, Group A; control group: n=488, Group B) who received MWA were included. Antithrombotic agent use was suspended before MWA and resumed as soon as possible after MWA. Hemorrhagic (hemothorax and hemoptysis) and thromboembolic complications (pulmonary embolism, cerebral infarction, and angina) were compared. Logistic regression analyses were used to investigate the predictors of hemorrhagic complications after MWA.

RESULTS

Hemorrhagic complications occurred in 8 participants (9.5%) from Group A and 33 participants (6.8%) from Group B, and no statistically significant difference was found (P=0.365). There were 3 participants (0.5%) who developed thromboembolic complications, including 1 case (1.2%, 1/84) of pulmonary embolism in Group A, and 2 cases (0.4%, 2/488) of cerebral infarction or angina in Group B; no significant difference was found (P=0.923). In the subgroup analyses of Group A, no statistically significant difference of hemorrhagic (P>0.999) or thromboembolic complications (P>0.999) was found between patients who received and did not receive bridging anticoagulation with heparin. Logistic regression analyses revealed that direct contact of a tumor with vessels ≥2 mm was a predictor of hemorrhagic complications [hazard ratio (HR) =2.318; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.215-4.420; P=0.011], while antithrombotic therapy was irrelevant.

CONCLUSIONS

With the appropriate cessation and resumption of antithrombotic agents, patients with NSCLC on antithrombotic therapy have comparable incidence rates of hemorrhagic and thromboembolic complications after MWA to those of patients who are not on antithrombotic therapy. Therefore, with appropriate cessation, MWA appears to generally be safe for NSCLC patients on antithrombotic therapy.

Gastrostomy tubes: Fundamentals, periprocedural considerations, and best practices

Gastrostomy tube placement is a procedure that achieves enteral access for nutrition, decompression, and medication administration. Preprocedural evaluation and selection of patients is necessary to provide optimal benefit and reduce the risk of adverse events (AEs). Appropriate indications, contraindications, ethical considerations, and comorbidities of patients referred for gastrostomy placement should be weighed and balanced. Additionally, endoscopist should consider either a transoral or transabdominal approach is appropriate, and radiologic or surgical gastrostomy tube placement is needed. However, medical history, physical examination, and imaging prior to the procedure should be considered to tailor the appropriate approach and reduce the risk of AEs.

Peritoneal Dialysis Catheter Placement: Percutaneous and Peritoneoscopic Techniques

Chronic peritoneal dialysis (PD) is an underutilized renal replacement therapy in treating end-stage renal disease that has several advantages over hemodialysis. The success of continuous ambulatory PD is largely dependent on a functional long-term access to the peritoneal cavity. Several methods have been developed to place the PD catheter using both surgical and percutaneous techniques. The purpose of this article is to describe the percutaneous techniques using fluoroscopy guidance and peritoneoscope method. While fluoroscopic method uses fluoroscopy guidance and a guidewire to place the PD catheter, the peritoneoscopic technique utilizes a needlescope to directly visualize the peritoneal space to avoid adhesions and omentum during catheter placement. These percutaneous approaches are minimally invasive procedures that can be performed on an outpatient basis without the need for general anesthesia.

CT-Guided Transthoracic Biopsy of Pulmonary Lesions: Diagnostic versus Nondiagnostic Results

(1) Background: Despite the high accuracy of CT-guided transthoracic biopsy for diagnosis of pulmonary lesions, in a certain amount of cases biopsy results may indicate the presence of nonspecific findings or insufficient material. We aimed to investigate the effectiveness of CT-guided transthoracic biopsy of pulmonary lesions in providing a specific diagnosis and to analyze the variables affecting biopsy results. (2) Methods: In this retrospective study, a total of 170 patients undergoing 183 CT-guided transthoracic biopsies of pulmonary lesions were included. The clinical, radiological and pathological data were reviewed to classify biopsy results as diagnostic or nondiagnostic and to identify which variables were associated with the two groups. (3) Results: The biopsy results were diagnostic in 150 cases (82.0%), of which 131 (87.3%) positive for malignancy and 19 (12.7%) with specific benign lesions, and nondiagnostic in 33 cases (18.0%). Twenty-two of the thirty-three (66.7%) nondiagnostic cases were finally determined as malignancies and eleven (33.3%) as benign lesions. In the diagnostic group, all the 131 biopsies positive for malignancy were confirmed to be malignant at final diagnosis (87.3%); of 19 biopsies with specific benign lesions, 13 cases were confirmed to be benign (8.7%), whereas six cases had a final diagnosis of malignancy (4%). Multivariate analysis showed increased risk of nondiagnostic biopsy for lesions ≤ 20 mm (p = 0.006) and lesions with final diagnosis of benignity (p = 0.001). (4) Conclusions: CT-guided transthoracic lung biopsy is an effective technique for the specific diagnosis of pulmonary lesions, with a relatively acceptable proportion of nondiagnostic cases. Small lesion size and final benign diagnosis are risk factors for nondiagnostic biopsy results.

Thromboelastography: a review for radiologists and implications on periprocedural bleeding risk

Thromboelastography (TEG) and rotational thromboelastometry are emerging technologies that are gaining increasing acceptance in the medical field to evaluate the coagulation status of patients on an individual level by assessing dynamic clot formation. TEG has been proven to reduce blood product use as well as improve patient outcomes in a variety of medical settings, including trauma and surgery due to the expediated nature of the test as well as the ability to determine specific deficiencies present in whole blood that are otherwise undetectable with traditional coagulation studies. Currently, no guidelines or recommendations are in place for the utilization of TEG in interventional or diagnostic radiology although access to TEG has become increasingly common in recent years. This manuscript presents a review of prior literature on the technical aspects of TEG as well as its use in various fields and explains the normal TEG-tracing parameters. Common hemodynamic abnormalities and their effect on the TEG tracing are illustrated, and the appropriate treatments for each abnormality are briefly mentioned. TEG has the potential to be a useful tool for determining the hemodynamic state of patients in both interventional and diagnostic radiology, and further research is needed to determine the value of these tests in the periprocedural setting.

Optimization of the Lung Biopsy Procedure: A Primer

Image-guided lung biopsy plays a very important role in the diagnosis and management of lung lesions. As a diagnostic tool, it demands a high diagnostic yield and a low complication rate. It is imperative to balance the diagnostic yield and patient safety during lung biopsies. The aim of this article is to review the standard practice guidelines of lung biopsy, to describe the techniques used to minimize the complications associated with lung biopsy, and to describe the management of complications.

Kidney Tissue Biopsy

Kidney tissue biopsy is a commonly performed procedure which is valuable in the work-up for patients with medical renal disease and renal transplant. This article will review indications, contraindications, technique and potential complications of kidney biopsy.

Renal Mass Biopsy

Kidney cancer accounts for 2% of cancer related deaths. Historically, a patient with a solid renal mass would undergo surgery without biopsy given the previously low diagnostic yield of biopsy and the fear of tumor seeding. This led to a high rate of resection for benign masses. With the rising incidence of renal masses discovered on imaging, improvements in biopsy technique and advancements in pathologic evaluation of biopsy samples of renal masses, renal mass biopsy now plays an important role in selected patients with renal masses. Coaxial core needle biopsy is the preferred technique with a low rate of complications and a high diagnostic yield. This article will discuss indications, methods, utility, limitations and complications of renal mass biopsy.

Safety and Efficacy of Percutaneous Image-Guided Mediastinal Mass Core-Needle Biopsy

Objective

To retrospectively evaluate the safety and efficacy of percutaneous image-guided mediastinal mass core-needle biopsy.

Patients and Methods

Retrospective review of an institutionally maintained biopsy registry identified 337 computed tomography- or ultrasound-guided percutaneous mediastinal mass core needle biopsies between October 2002 and August 2017 in a single quaternary referral center. Mean patient age was 51 (range, 18 to 93) years. Procedural techniques, anticoagulation/antiplatelet therapy, and tumor anatomical characteristics were reviewed. Classification and gradation of complications was based on the Clavien-Dindo system. Diagnostic yield was defined as the ratio of diagnostic biopsy to all biopsies performed.

Results

Mean tumor size was 59.2 (range, 10 to 180) mm with 89.9% (n=303) of lesions located in the prevascular (anterior) mediastinum. There was a single major complication (0.3%) of a symptomatic pneumothorax requiring intervention. There were seven (2.1%) minor complications, including three bleeding complications. A transpleural approach was the only variable associated with an increased complication rate (P<.01). Forty-one (12.2%) patients had a biopsy performed while taking an antiplatelet/anticoagulant agent within the therapeutic window, with a single case (0.3%) associated with a minor bleeding complication. Of 18 (5.3%) procedures performed without cessation of anticoagulant/antiplatelet therapy, there were no bleeding complications. Of all 337 biopsies, 322 (95.5%) were diagnostic. None of the analyzed variables were significantly associated with a nondiagnostic biopsy.

Conclusion

Image-guided percutaneous core-needle biopsy of mediastinal masses is a safe procedure with high diagnostic yield. Further prospective studies are required to assess the complication profile in higher risk patients.

Percutaneous Bone and Soft Tissue Biopsies: An Illustrative Approach

Even in pandemic times cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Spine and peripheral skeleton constitute a common location for metastatic disease whilst numerous sarcomatous and other primary cancers may be depicted in the musculoskeletal system. Tissue sampling is necessary for histopathological identification as well as for molecular profiling in order to personalize cancer prevention, diagnosis and treatment; in addition cultures of bone and soft tissue sampling contribute to identifying pathogens in order to provide the most appropriate systemic therapy. Performing an open surgical biopsy increases morbidity and mortality while at the same time runs the risk of destabilizing a pathologic segment. Imaging guidance ensures high safety and efficacy rates and contributes to the minimally invasive character of percutaneous biopsy by providing immediate confirmation of correct needle location in the area of interest. Selecting the imaging guidance method which will visualize the target lesion and the needle trajectory as well as the largest possible needle biopsy that can maximize the diagnostic yield is of outmost importance for high safety and efficacy rates. The purpose of the present review is to provide a comprehensive, current overview of percutaneous, imaging guided biopsy in the spine and peripheral skeleton, to become familiar with the most common indications, to learn about different technical considerations during performance and to provide the current evidence. Controversies concerning products will be addressed.

Ultrasound Guided Thyroid Biopsy

Thyroid nodules are extremely prevalent among older adults, and pose a challenge due to the frequency in which they are incidentally encountered. Approximately 5% of all nodules are malignant. Ultrasound is the first line tool to evaluate thyroid nodules, and can help identify nodules that are high-risk for malignancy. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) is an excellent low-risk procedure used to evaluate suspicious thyroid nodules and identify thyroid malignancy. It is performed with a 22-27-gauge needle under ultrasound guidance. Core needle biopsy (CNB) is usually not required; however, it can be helpful if FNA is non-diagnostic or inconclusive. On-site pathologist evaluation can help determine which patients need additional sampling. CNB is usually performed with a trocar technique using an 18-gauge biopsy device under ultrasound guidance. Complications from thyroid biopsy are rare, and the most common complications are discomfort, small to moderate hematoma, and insufficient sampling. Although rare, a rapidly expanding large hematoma can cause airway compression requiring intubation and surgery to preserve the airway and achieve hemostasis. Following biopsy, approximately 10.8% of thyroid nodules will require surgical excision.

Percutaneous Image-guided Needle Biopsy of Musculoskeletal Tumors: Technical Tips

With recent advances in imaging technology, the frequency of detecting musculoskeletal lesions has also increased. Percutaneous image-guided needle biopsy is occasionally required for the diagnosis of such lesions. Moreover, in the era of personalized cancer care, chances in histopathological diagnosis and the importance of histopathological diagnosis by percutaneous needle biopsy are increasing. However, as percutaneous needle biopsy is not a common procedure for musculoskeletal lesions, careful planning and the application of adequate techniques such as hydrodissection and the trans-osseous approach are occasionally required. In this review, we have summarized the indications and techniques for percutaneous image-guided needle biopsy for musculoskeletal lesions, including lymphatic lesions.

The utility and complications of plasma administration in cirrhotic patients undergoing minimally invasive procedures

Patients with cirrhosis have coagulopathy often necessitating correction with blood products, such as plasma products (fresh frozen plasma and plasma frozen within 24 h) prior to certain invasive procedures. However, plasma administration has the potential for substantial negative adverse effects such as volume overload, transfusion-related lung injury and allergic/anaphylactic reactions. In addition, its effectiveness in preventing bleeding is similarly unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine the safety and efficacy of plasma administration in cirrhotic patients undergoing minimally invasive procedures, specifically vascular access placement, transjugular liver biopsies, renal biopsies and thoracenteses. In this retrospective cohort study, we identified patients receiving plasma products in preparation for an invasive procedure, with the primary outcomes of volume overload and bleeding. Of the 145 transfusion events that met the criteria from 2015 to 2018, the median INR decreased from 2.7 to 2.2 pre and post plasma administration and 13.8% of recipients had complications of volume overload. The cost of acquisition of plasma administered below clinically impactful doses accumulates to an estimated 19 000 dollars over this time period, not including nursing preparation or production costs. Plasma products minimally, if at all, improved laboratory values of coagulation and in some patients led to adverse effects.

Hemoptysis associated with percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy: Development of critical events checklist and procedure outcomes

BACKGROUND

A percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy (PTNB) is performed to obtain tissue for a pathologic diagnosis. A PTNB is necessary prior to the initiation of many cancer treatments. There is a risk of hemoptysis, the expectoration of blood, with the possibility for adverse, life-threatening outcomes. A critical event checklist is a cognitive aid used in an emergency to ensure critical steps are followed. To date, there are no known checklists published for management of PTNB-related, life-threatening hemoptysis. The purpose of this report is to describe the development and implementation of a critical event checklist and the adoption of the checklist into hemoptysis management.

METHODS

In March 2017, a process improvement team convened to evaluate the hemoptysis response using the Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) methodology. The checklist was evaluated and updated through September 2019. The team educated Interventional Radiology (IR) clinicians on the new checklist and conducted simulations on its use. A retrospective chart review was performed on hemoptysis events between the ten-year period of October 1, 2008 and September 30, 2018 to evaluate the adoption of the checklist into practice.

RESULTS

There were 231 hemoptysis events occurring in 229 patients (2 with repeat biopsies). Prior to implementing the protocol and checklist, there were 166 (71.9%) hemoptysis events. After implementation there were 65 (28.1%) events. The median amount of documented blood expectorated with hemoptysis was 100 mL (IQR 20.0-300.0). Twenty-six patients were admitted after PTNB for reasons related to the hemoptysis event (11.3%). During the procedure, four (1.7%) patients with hemoptysis suffered a cardiac arrest. Prior to implementation of the protocol and critical events checklist, nurses positioned patients in the lateral decubitus (LD) position in 40 out of 162 (24.7%) cases. After implementation of the critical events checklist, nurses positioned patients in the LD position 42 out of 65 cases (64.6%) (OR=5.57(95% CI 2.99-10.367), p<0.001).

DISCUSSION

Interventional Radiology nurses successfully adopted the checklist into management of hemoptysis events. The reported incidence of hemoptysis suggests a need for IR teams to prepare for and simulate hemoptysis events. Future research is needed to evaluate the change in patient outcomes before and after critical events checklist implementation.

Narrative review of vascular iatrogenic trauma and endovascular treatment

Iatrogenic injury is unfortunately a leading cause of morbidity and mortality for patients worldwide. The etiology of iatrogenic injury is broad, and can be seen with both diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. While steps can be taken to reduce the occurrence of iatrogenic injury, it is often not completely avoidable. Once iatrogenic injury has occurred, prompt recognition and appropriate management can help reduce further harm. The objective of this narrative review it to help reader better understand the risk factors associated with, and treatment options for a broad range of potential iatrogenic injuries by presenting a series of iatrogenic injury cases. This review also discusses rates, risk factors, as well as imaging and clinical signs of iatrogenic injury with an emphasis on endovascular and minimally invasive treatments. While iatrogenic vascular injury once required surgical intervention, now minimally invasive endovascular treatment is a potential option for certain patients. Further research is needed to help identify patients that are at the highest risk for iatrogenic injury, allowing patients and providers to reconsider or avoid interventions where the risk of iatrogenic injury may outweigh the benefit. Further research is also needed to better define outcomes for patients with iatrogenic vascular injury treated with minimally invasive endovascular techniques verses conservative management or surgical intervention.

CIRSE Standards of Practice on Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography, Biliary Drainage and Stenting

This CIRSE Standards of Practice document is aimed at interventional radiologists and provides best practices for performing percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography, biliary drainage and stenting. It has been developed by an expert writing group established by the CIRSE Standards of Practice Committee.

Role of Imaging in Renal Cell Carcinoma: A Multidisciplinary Perspective

With the expansion in cross-sectional imaging over the past few decades, there has been an increase in the number of incidentally detected renal masses and an increase in the incidence of renal cell carcinomas (RCCs). The complete characterization of an indeterminate renal mass on CT or MR images is challenging, and the authors provide a critical review of the best imaging methods and essential, important, and optional reporting elements used to describe the indeterminate renal mass. While surgical staging remains the standard of care for RCC, the role of renal mass CT or MRI in staging RCC is reviewed, specifically with reference to areas that may be overlooked at imaging such as detection of invasion through the renal capsule or perirenal (Gerota) fascia. Treatment options for localized RCC are expanding, and a multidisciplinary group of experts presents an overview of the role of advanced medical imaging in surgery, percutaneous ablation, transarterial embolization, active surveillance, and stereotactic body radiation therapy. Finally, the arsenal of treatments for advanced renal cancer continues to grow to improve response to therapy while limiting treatment side effects. Imaging findings are important in deciding the best treatment options and to monitor response to therapy. However, evaluating response has increased in complexity. The unique imaging findings associated with antiangiogenic targeted therapy and immunotherapy are discussed. An invited commentary by Remer is available online. Online supplemental material is available for this article. ^©RSNA, 2021.

CIRSE Clinical Practice Manual

Background

Interventional radiology (IR) has come a long way to a nowadays UEMS-CESMA endorsed clinical specialty. Over the last decades IR became an essential part of modern medicine, delivering minimally invasive patient-focused care.

Purpose

To provide principles for delivering high quality of care in IR.

Methods

Systematic description of clinical skills, principles of practice, organizational standards and infrastructure needed for the provision of professional IR services.

Results

There are IR procedures for almost all body parts and organs, covering a broad range of medical conditions. In many cases IR procedures are the mainstay of therapy, e.g. in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. In parallel the specialty moved from the delivery of a procedure towards taking care for a patient’s condition with the interventional radiologists taking ultimate responsibility for the patient’s outcomes.

Conclusions

The evolution from a technical specialty to a clinical specialty goes along with changing demands on how clinical care in IR is provided. The CIRSE Clinical Practice Manual provides interventional radiologist with a starting point for developing his or her IR practice as a clinician.

Need for analgesia after percutaneous liver biopsy: a real-life experience

Objective

To evaluate variables affecting the need for analgesia after ultrasound-guided percutaneous liver biopsy performed on an outpatient basis.

Materials and Methods

This was a retrospective analysis of 1,042 liver biopsies performed between 2012 and 2018. The data collected included the age and sex of the patient, as well as self-reported pain in the recovery room, the pain treatment used, the indication for the biopsy, and the lobe punctured. As per the protocol of our institution, physicians would re-evaluate patients with mild pain (1-3 on a visual analog scale), prescribe analgesics for those with moderate pain (4-6 on the visual analog scale), and prescribe opioids for those with severe pain (7-10 on the visual analog scale).

Results

The main indications for biopsy were related to diffuse disease (in 89.9%), including the follow-up of hepatitis C (in 47.0%) and suspicion of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (in 38.0%). Pain requiring analgesia occurred in 8.0% of procedures. Of the 485 female patients, 51 (10.5%) needed analgesia, compared with 33 (5.9%) of the 557 male patients (p < 0.05). The need for analgesia did not differ in relation to patient age, the lobe punctured, or the indication for biopsy (nodular or diffuse disease). The analgesic most commonly used was dipyrone (in 75.9%), followed by paracetamol alone (16.4%) and their combination with opioids (7.6%).

Conclusion

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous liver biopsy is safe and well tolerated. Postprocedural pain does not correlate with the lobe punctured, patient age, or the indication for biopsy and appears to affect more women than men.

Estimation of risk for major bleeding in native kidney biopsies in patients with multiple risk factors

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Individuals undergoing kidney biopsy are increasingly older and may have concurrent illnesses that cause deranged hematological and renal parameters that are associated with post-biopsy bleeding. We aimed to develop a clinical risk model to quantify bleeding risks in high-risk individuals with multiple risk factors.

METHODS

Single-center retrospective cohort study of consecutive adults with serum creatinine ≥ 2 mg/dL (176 µmol/L) and had ultrasound-guided percutaneous native kidney biopsies between June 2011 and July 2015 in our tertiary referral center. The primary outcome was major bleeding, defined as need for red cell transfusion, radiological or surgical intervention, or if bleeding led to death within 7 days after kidney biopsy.

RESULTS

Among 184 native kidney biopsies with serum creatinine ≥ 2 mg/dL, median age was 54.1 years and eGFR was 18.8 ml/min/1.73 m². Major bleeding occurred in 19 biopsies (10.3%). Multivariate analysis accounting for age, weight, hemoglobin, platelet, prothrombin time and urea found that higher hemoglobin (adjusted OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.33-0.79, p = 0.003) and platelet (adjusted OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.98-0.99, p = 0.01) were independently associated with reduced major bleeding. A risk model that included (1) age ≥ 62 years old, (2) hemoglobin < 10 g/dL and (3) platelets ≤ 216 × 10⁹/L as categorical variables predicted major bleeding post-biopsy.

CONCLUSION

We developed a risk model that included multiple risk factors to quantify bleeding risks in native kidney biopsies with renal impairment.

Radiofrequency Ablation of Liver Tumors in Patients on Antithrombotic Therapy: A Case-Control Analysis of over 10,000 Treatments

PURPOSE

To evaluate the safety of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for liver tumors in patients on antithrombotic therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 10,653 consecutive RFA treatments in 3,485 patients with liver tumors were analyzed. The incidence of complications was analyzed on a treatment basis. The treatments for patients who had received antithrombotic medication up to 1 week prior to RFA comprised the antithrombotic therapy group (n = 806), and the others comprised the control group (n = 9,847). Antithrombotic agents were ceased prior to RFA (aspirin, ticlopidine, clopidogrel, and prasugrel ceased 7 days before RFA; cilostazol, 2 or 3 days before RFA; warfarin, 3 days before RFA; and direct oral anticoagulants, 1 day before RFA) and resumed as soon as possible after RFA. Logistic regression analysis was performed to assess whether the antithrombotic therapy increased the risk of hemorrhagic complications.

RESULTS

Hemorrhagic complications were diagnosed after 6 treatments (0.7%) in the antithrombotic group and 48 (0.5%) in the control group, and there was no significant difference between the groups (P = .30). In 3 treatments, hemorrhage was diagnosed on or after 8 days of RFA, all of which were in the antithrombotic group. Thrombotic complications were diagnosed after 2 treatments (0.2%) in the antithrombotic group and after 5 (0.1%) in the control group. In a multivariate analysis, receiving antithrombotic therapy was not an independent risk factor for hemorrhagic complications (adjusted odds ratio, 1.52; 95% confidence interval, 0.60-3.87; P = .38).

CONCLUSIONS

RFA of liver tumors in patients on antithrombotic therapy is generally safe with appropriate cessation and resumption. Late-onset hemorrhage should be noted in the patients on antithrombotic therapy.

The role of percutaneous CT-guided biopsy of an adrenal lesion in patients with known or suspected lung cancer

PURPOSE

To determine the sensitivity, specificity, and complication rate of percutaneous adrenal biopsy in patients with known or suspected lung cancer.

METHODS

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at our institution as a retrospective analysis; therefore, the need for informed consent was waived. All percutaneous adrenal biopsies performed between April 1993 and May 2019 were reviewed. 357 of 582 biopsies were performed on 343 patients with known or suspected lung cancer (M:F 164:179; mean age 66 years). The biopsy results were classified into malignant, benign, or non-diagnostic. The final diagnosis was established by pathology (biopsy and/or surgical resection) or imaging follow-up on CT for at least 12 months following the biopsy. Patients with less than 12 months follow-up were excluded (n = 44). Complications were recorded.

RESULTS

The final diagnosis was metastatic lung cancer in 235 cases (77.8%), metastasis from an extrapulmonary primary in 2 cases (0.7%), pheochromocytoma in 2 cases (0.7%), and benign lesions in 63 cases (20.9%). Percutaneous adrenal gland biopsy had a sensitivity of 97% and specificity of 100% for lung cancer metastases. The non-diagnostic rate was 0.6%. Larger lesions were more likely to be malignant (p = 0.0000) and to be correctly classified as a lung metastasis (p = 0.025). The incidence of minor complications was 1.1%. There were no major complications.

CONCLUSION

Over 20% of adrenal lesions in patients with known or suspected lung cancer were not related to lung cancer. Percutaneous adrenal gland biopsy is a safe procedure, with high sensitivity and specificity for lung cancer metastases.

Multicenter retrospective study of transcatheter arterial embolisation for life-threatening haemorrhage in patients with uncorrected bleeding diathesis

BACKGROUND

We retrospectively investigated outcomes of emergency TAE for the management of life-threatening haemorrhage in patients with uncorrected bleeding diathesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This multicenter, retrospective, study, was designed to investigate the safety and efficacy of percutaneous TAE for the management of life-threatening haemorrhage in patients with uncorrected bleeding disorder at the time of embolization. All consecutive patients with uncorrected coagulation who underwent TAE for the treatment of haemorrhage, between January 1st and December 31th 2019 in three European centers were included. Inclusion criteria were thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 50,000/mL) and/or International Normalized Ratio (INR) ≥2.0, and/or activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) > 45 s, and/or a pre-existing underlying blood-clotting disorder such as factor VIII, Von Willebrand disease, hepatic cirrhosis with abnormal liver function tests. Primary outcome measures were technical success, rebleeding rate and clinical success. Secondary outcome measures included patients' 30-day survival rate, and procedure-related complications.

RESULTS

In total, 134 patients underwent TAE for bleeding control. A subgroup of 17 patients with 18 procedures [11 female, mean age 70.5 ± 15 years] which represent 12.7% of the total number of patients, presented with pathological coagulation parameters at the time of TAE (haemophilia n = 3, thrombocytopenia n = 1, cirrhosis n = 5, anticoagulants n = 7, secondary to bleeding n = 1) and were analyzed. Technical success was 100%, as in all procedures the bleeding site was detected and successfully embolised. Clinical success was 100%, as none of the patients died of bleeding during hospitalization, nor was surgically treated for bleeding relapse. Only one rebleeding case was noted (5.9%) that was successfully treated with a second TAE. No procedure-related complications were noted. According to Kaplan-Meier analysis the estimated 30-day survival rate was 84.2%.

CONCLUSION

TAE in selected patients with uncorrected bleeding diathesis should be considered as a suitable individualized management approach. Emergency TAE for life threatening haemorrhage in patients with coagulation cascade disorders should be used as an aid in realistic clinical decision making.

Association of aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with bleeding complications in image-guided musculoskeletal biopsies

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the safety of continuing aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) in patients undergoing image-guided musculoskeletal biopsies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Prior to October 2017, patients undergoing image-guided musculoskeletal biopsy had aspirin and NSAIDs withheld for the preceding 5-7 days. The policy changed in October 2017 based on new guidelines from the Society of Interventional Radiology such that aspirin and other NSAIDs were not withheld. A retrospective review of patient records was performed for all biopsies prior to and after the policy change to assess for differences in biopsy-related bleeding complications. Additional clinical and biopsy factors including age, gender, liver disease, coagulopathy, biopsy tissue type, and histological diagnosis were assessed.

RESULTS

In the pre-policy change group, there were 1853 total biopsies with 43 biopsy-related bleeding complications (2.3%). Within this group, 362 patients were on aspirin with 7 bleeding complications (1.9%) and 260 patients were on NSAIDs with 5 bleeding complications (1.9%). There were 409 total biopsies in the post-policy change group and 7 bleeding complications (1.7%). Within this group, 71 patients were on aspirin with 1 bleeding complication (1.4%). No bleeding complications were recorded in patients on NSAIDs (0%). There was no significant difference in bleeding complication between the pre- and post-policy change groups overall (p = 0.58) and in patients on aspirin (p = 1.00) or other NSAIDs (p = 1.00).

CONCLUSION

Bleeding complications for musculoskeletal biopsies are rare. Leaving patients on aspirin or other NSAIDs during a musculoskeletal biopsy does not increase the incidence of bleeding complications.

Coagulation issues in vascular anomalies

Vascular anomalies, comprised of vascular tumors and malformations, are frequently associated with coagulopathy. Recognition of and familiarity with these vascular anomaly-associated hematologic abnormalities prior to surgery or interventional procedures is essential for pre-operative pre-operative planning. Complicated coagulopathies present within the framework of either Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon (KMP) or localized intravascular coagulopathy (LIC), and their management benefits from the expertise of a hematologist for optimal intra- and peri‑operative care. Furthermore, with the recent broadening of understanding of vascular anomalies and the addition of new classification sub-groups, distinctions of these two classic coagulopathy phenotypes have been recognized. This review summarizes the main features of these coagulopathies, described according to their vascular anomaly type, highlighting clinical aspects relevant to surgical management.

Low Utility of Screening Hematologic Testing for Image-Guided Biopsies in Patients Without Bleeding Risks

OBJECTIVE. This study evaluates the prevalence of an abnormal international normalized ratio (INR) and platelet count before image-guided percutaneous needle biopsies over a 10-year period, comparing data from patients with and those without known conditions predisposing to coagulopathy. MATERIALS AND METHODS. A review of electronic medical records identified patients who were scheduled for a biopsy in a single institution's radiology department for the period of 2007-2016. The following information was recorded: demographic data, patient history of conditions that predispose to bleeding (e.g., liver disease, anticoagulant therapy, history of coagulopathy), and INR and platelet values within 30 days before biopsy. Data were stratified by biopsies that were performed versus those that were cancelled. RESULTS. Over 10 years, 3864 percutaneous biopsies were performed, and 6371 were cancelled. Approximately half of the biopsies (48.2%) were performed in patients without a predisposing condition; of those patients, 0.8% and 0.1% had an INR greater than 1.5 and greater than 1.8, respectively, and 0.4% had a platelet count of 50,000/μL or less (≤ 50 × 10⁹/L). In patients with no known predisposing condition, 0.6% and 0.0% of biopsies cancelled were in patients who had an INR greater than 1.5 and greater than 1.8, respectively, and 0.1% of biopsies cancelled were in patients who had a platelet count of 50,000/μL or less. Ordering prebiopsy testing of patients with no predisposing conditions for the 1864 percutaneous biopsies performed over the 10-year study period resulted in more than $850,000 in laboratory-related health care costs. Our results suggest that the cost of identifying one abnormal INR is nearly $700,000. CONCLUSION. For patients without any known bleeding risks who are scheduled to undergo image-guided percutaneous biopsies, identifying an abnormal INR or abnormal platelet count is rare. Eliminating this testing in patients without predisposing conditions has the potential to create savings in costs and time for both physicians and patients.

Thrombocytopenia in Chronic Liver Disease: New Management Strategies

Thrombocytopenia is common in advanced liver disease, and such patients frequently need invasive procedures. Numerous mechanisms for thrombocytopenia exist, including splenic sequestration and reduction of levels of the platelet growth factor thrombopoietin. Traditionally, platelet transfusions have been used to increase platelet counts before elective procedures, usually to a threshold of greater than or equal to 50,000/μL, but levels vary by provider, procedure, and specific patient. Recently, the thrombopoietin receptor agonists avatrombopag and lusutrombopag were studied and found efficacious for increasing platelet count in the outpatient setting for select patients with advanced liver disease who need a procedure.

Computed Tomography-Guided Percutaneous Cryoablation for ‎ Subcardiac Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Safety, Efficacy, Therapeutic Results and Risk Factors for Survival Outcomes

Objective

To investigate the clinical safety, efficacy, therapeutic outcomes and risk factors of computed tomography-guided percutaneous cryoablation (CT-PCRA) for subcardiac hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Patients and Methods

In this study, patients with single HCC nodules located on the left lobe who subsequently underwent CT-PCRA were reviewed from July 2012 to August 2016. According to the definition of subcardiac HCC, the patients were grouped into the subcardiac HCC group (n=33) and the non-subcardiac HCC group (n=40). The technical success rates, tumour response rates, oncological outcomes including overall survival (OS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS) and complications were compared. Multivariate analysis was performed on clinicopathological variables to identify factors affecting long-term outcomes.

Results

Seventy-three patients with subcardiac HCC were included in this study. After a median follow-up time of 37.8 months, 27.4% (20/73) of the patients died. The technical success and complete response rates were not significantly different between the two groups (p = 1.000; p = 0.590). The cumulative OS and RFS of the subcardiac HCC group were comparable to those of the non-subcardiac HCC group (p =0.820, p =0.922). Two major complications, intra-abdominal bleeding and right pleural effusion, were found at 2.2 and 3.1 months in the subcardiac HCC group, which were comparable with those in the non-subcardiac HCC group (p = 0.683). The multivariate analysis results showed that older age (hazard ratio [HR]: 2.382, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.884–7.823; p = 0.038) and ALBI grade 2–3 (HR: 3.398, 95% CI: 1.950–6.058; p = 0.021) may be predictors of poor OS and that tumour size ≥3 cm in diameter (HR: 3.302, 95% CI: 2.232–8.293; p = 0.012) may be a predictor of poor RFS.

Conclusion

CT-PCRA for subcardiac HCC can be performed safely and efficiently and contribute to improving survival prognosis.

The utility of liver biopsy in 2020

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Over the past decade, imaging modalities and serological tests have emerged as important tools in the evaluation of liver diseases, in many cases supplanting the use of liver biopsy and histological examination. Nonetheless, the accuracy and diagnostic value of these methods may not always be conclusive and the assessment of liver histology often remains the gold standard for diagnostic evaluation. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current role of liver biopsy in contemporary hepatology practice.

RECENT FINDINGS

Technical factors were found to influence the diagnostic value of liver biopsy and histological examination of the liver, including specimen number and size (preferably ≥3 nonfragmented specimens of >20 mm in length), needle diameter (1.6 mm Menghini), number of passes (mean 2.5), imaging-guidance, and operator experience. Liver biopsy was demonstrated to be diagnostically valuable in the evaluation of persistently abnormal liver tests of unclear cause, with histology pointing to a specific diagnosis in 84% of patients. Although coagulation abnormalities continue to be an important concern when performing liver biopsy, their influence on complication risk remains unclear. Implementation of less stringent preprocedural coagulation thresholds decreased preprocedural transfusions without increasing the bleeding rate. Serious complications associated with percutaneous liver-biopsy (PLB) and transjugular liver-biopsy are similar, but pain appears to be more common with PLB.

SUMMARY

Histopathological evaluation continues to be fundamentally important in assessing hepatic disease, and liver histology remains the most accurate approach to assess fibrosis and assign prognosis.

Role of Interventional Radiology in the Management of Infection

Interventional radiology (IR) is plays a crucial role in the management of localized infections, utilizing percutaneous access to loculated fluid collections for drainage and source control. Interventions have been developed in multiple organs and systems and used over decades, allowing the IR physician to provide patient care in many cases where surgical options are not optimal. In this review, we will examine the emergent, urgent, and routine nature of various IR procedures in the infectious context and timelines for each in regards to the decision making process. An algorithmic approach should guide the clinician's decision making for IR procedures in both large academic centers and smaller community hospitals. This approach and the pertinent procedural technique are described for multiple systems and organs including the biliary tree, gallbladder, genitourinary tract, and thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic abscesses. Increased awareness of the abilities and limitations of IR physicians in clinical scenarios needs to be implemented, to allow multispecialty input in efforts to decrease morbidity and mortality.