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Pal D, Amyot M, Liang C, Ariya PA. Real-time 4D tracking of airborne virus-laden droplets and aerosols. COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING 2023; 2:41. [PMCID: PMC10955884 DOI: 10.1038/s44172-023-00088-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
There is currently no real-time airborne virus tracking method, hindering the understanding of rapid virus changes and associated health impacts. Nano-digital in-line holographic microscopy (Nano-DIHM) is a lensless technology that can directly obtain the interference patterns of objects by recording the scattered light information originating from the objects. Here, we provide evidence for real-time physicochemical tracking of virus-laden droplets and aerosols in the air using desktop label-free Nano-DIHM. The virus interference patterns, as single and ensemble particles, were imaged by the Nano-DIHM with 32.5 ms resolution. The next-generation Stingray and Octopus software was used to automate object detection, characterization and classification from the recorded holograms. The detection system was demonstrated to detect active MS2 bacteriophages, inactivated SARS-CoV-2 and RNA fragments, and an MS2 mixture with metallic and organic compounds. This work demonstrates the feasibility of using Nano-DIHM to provide rapid virus detection to improve transmission management in real time. Devendra Pal and coworkers report an imaging system using Nano-Digital in-line Holographic Microscopy (NanoDIHM) to detect airborne viruses in droplets and aerosols in real time. This system is able to detect various viruses in air, water and heterogeneous matrices within one minute, enabling real-time tracking of pollutant particles for efficient epidemic management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devendra Pal
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H3A 0B9 Canada
| | - Marc Amyot
- Department of Biological Sciences, Univerité de Montréal, Complexe des Sciences, 1375 Avenue Thérèse-Lavoie-Roux, Montréal, QC H2V 0B3 Canada
| | - Chen Liang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University and Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Rd., Montreal, QC G3T 1 E2 Canada
| | - Parisa A. Ariya
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H3A 0B9 Canada
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, QC H3A 2K6 Canada
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De Sá Magalhães S, De Santis E, Hussein-Gore S, Colomb-Delsuc M, Keshavarz-Moore E. Quality assessment of virus-like particle: A new transmission electron microscopy approach. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:975054. [PMID: 36504719 PMCID: PMC9732438 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.975054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a gold standard analytical method for nanoparticle characterization and is playing a valuable role in virus-like particle (VLP) characterization extending to other biological entities such as viral vectors. A dedicated TEM facility is a challenge to both small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and companies operating in low-and-middle income countries (LMICs) due to high start-up and running costs. A low-voltage TEM solution with assisted image acquisition and analysis such as the MiniTEM system, coupled with Vironova Imaging and Analysis Software (VIAS) could provide an affordable and practical alternative. The MiniTEM system has a small footprint and software that enables semi-automated data collection and image analysis workflows using built-in deep learning methods (convolutional neural networks) for automation in analysis, increasing speed of information processing and enabling scaling to larger datasets. In this perspective we outline the potential and challenges in the use of TEM as mainstream analytical tool in manufacturing settings. We highlight the rationale and preliminary findings from our proof-of-concept study aiming to develop a method to assess critical quality attributes (CQAs) of VLPs and facilitate adoption of TEM in manufacturing settings. In our study we explored all the steps, from sample preparation to data collection and analysis using synthetic VLPs as model systems. The applicability of the method in product development was verified at pilot-scale during the technology transfer of dengue VLPs development from a university setting to an LMIC- based vaccine manufacturing company, demonstrating the applicability of this analytical technique to VLP vaccine characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salomé De Sá Magalhães
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emiliana De Santis
- National Physical Laboratory, NPL, Teddington, United Kingdom,*Correspondence: Eli Keshavarz-Moore, ; Emiliana De Santis,
| | | | | | - Eli Keshavarz-Moore
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, UCL, London, United Kingdom,*Correspondence: Eli Keshavarz-Moore, ; Emiliana De Santis,
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3
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Azim S, Bultema LA, de Kock MB, Osorio-Blanco ER, Calderón M, Gonschior J, Leimkohl JP, Tellkamp F, Bücker R, Schulz EC, Keskin S, de Jonge N, Kassier GH, Miller RJD. Environmental Liquid Cell Technique for Improved Electron Microscopic Imaging of Soft Matter in Solution. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2021; 27:44-53. [PMID: 33280632 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927620024654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy is a technique for simultaneous imaging of the structure and dynamics of specimens in a liquid environment. The conventional sample geometry consists of a liquid layer tightly sandwiched between two Si3N4 windows with a nominal spacing on the order of 0.5 μm. We describe a variation of the conventional approach, wherein the Si3N4 windows are separated by a 10-μm-thick spacer, thus providing room for gas flow inside the liquid specimen enclosure. Adjusting the pressure and flow speed of humid air inside this environmental liquid cell (ELC) creates a stable liquid layer of controllable thickness on the bottom window, thus facilitating high-resolution observations of low mass-thickness contrast objects at low electron doses. We demonstrate controllable liquid thicknesses in the range 160 ± 34 to 340 ± 71 nm resulting in corresponding edge resolutions of 0.8 ± 0.06 to 1.7 ± 0.8 nm as measured for immersed gold nanoparticles. Liquid layer thickness 40 ± 8 nm allowed imaging of low-contrast polystyrene particles. Hydration effects in the ELC have been studied using poly-N-isopropylacrylamide nanogels with a silica core. Therefore, ELC can be a suitable tool for in situ investigations of liquid specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sana Azim
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lindsey A Bultema
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michiel B de Kock
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Department of Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Notkestraße 85, 22607Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Marcelo Calderón
- POLYMAT & Applied Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 3, 20018Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013Bilbao, Spain
| | - Josef Gonschior
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jan-Philipp Leimkohl
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Friedjof Tellkamp
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Robert Bücker
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Eike C Schulz
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sercan Keskin
- INM - Leibniz Institute for New Materials, Campus D2 2, 66123Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Niels de Jonge
- INM - Leibniz Institute for New Materials, Campus D2 2, 66123Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Physics, Saarland University, Campus D2 2, 66123Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Günther H Kassier
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
| | - R J Dwayne Miller
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, Geb. 99 (CFEL), 22761Hamburg, Germany
- Departments of Chemistry and Physics, University of Toronto, 80 St. Georg Street, Toronto, ONM5S 3H6, Canada
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Luo Z, Ang MJY, Chan SY, Yi Z, Goh YY, Yan S, Tao J, Liu K, Li X, Zhang H, Huang W, Liu X. Combating the Coronavirus Pandemic: Early Detection, Medical Treatment, and a Concerted Effort by the Global Community. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2020; 2020:6925296. [PMID: 32607499 PMCID: PMC7315394 DOI: 10.34133/2020/6925296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus, known as 2019-nCoV, a pandemic, as the coronavirus has now infected over 2.6 million people globally and caused more than 185,000 fatalities as of April 23, 2020. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) causes a respiratory illness with symptoms such as dry cough, fever, sudden loss of smell, and, in more severe cases, difficulty breathing. To date, there is no specific vaccine or treatment proven effective against this viral disease. Early and accurate diagnosis of COVID-19 is thus critical to curbing its spread and improving health outcomes. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is commonly used to detect the presence of COVID-19. Other techniques, such as recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), and microfluidics, have allowed better disease diagnosis. Here, as part of the effort to expand screening capacity, we review advances and challenges in the rapid detection of COVID-19 by targeting nucleic acids, antigens, or antibodies. We also summarize potential treatments and vaccines against COVID-19 and discuss ongoing clinical trials of interventions to reduce viral progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zichao Luo
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Melgious Jin Yan Ang
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Siew Yin Chan
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics & Shaanxi Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Zhigao Yi
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Yi Yiing Goh
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, Singapore 117456, Singapore
| | - Shuangqian Yan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Jun Tao
- Sports Medical Centre, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Kai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Chang Chun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Xiaosong Li
- Department of Oncology, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Hongjie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Chang Chun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics & Shaanxi Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics & Institute of Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Xiaogang Liu
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- The N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Joint School of National University of Singapore and Tianjin University, International Campus of Tianjin University, Fuzhou 350807, China
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A new inactivation method to facilitate cryo-EM of enveloped, RNA viruses requiring high containment: A case study using Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV). J Virol Methods 2019; 277:113792. [PMID: 31786314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2019.113792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The challenges associated with operating electron microscopes (EM) in biosafety level 3 and 4 containment facilities have slowed progress of cryo-EM studies of high consequence viruses. We address this gap in a case study of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV) strain TC-83. Chemical inactivation of viruses may physically distort structure, and hence to verify retention of native structure, we selected VEEV strain TC-83 to develop this methodology as this virus has a 4.8 Å resolution cryo-EM structure. In our method, amplified VEEV TC-83 was concentrated directly from supernatant through a 30 % sucrose cushion, resuspended, and chemically inactivated with 1 % glutaraldehyde. A second 30 % sucrose cushion removed any excess glutaraldehyde that might interfere with single particle analyses. A cryo-EM map of fixed, inactivated VEEV was determined to a resolution of 7.9 Å. The map retained structural features of the native virus such as the icosahedral symmetry, and the organization of the capsid core and the trimeric spikes. Our results suggest that our strategy can easily be adapted for inactivation of other enveloped, RNA viruses requiring BSL-3 or BSL-4 for cryo-EM. However, the validation of inactivation requires the oversight of Biosafety Committee for each Institution.
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Parvate A, Williams EP, Taylor MK, Chu YK, Lanman J, Saphire EO, Jonsson CB. Diverse Morphology and Structural Features of Old and New World Hantaviruses. Viruses 2019; 11:E862. [PMID: 31527500 PMCID: PMC6783877 DOI: 10.3390/v11090862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
To further understanding of the structure and morphology of the Orthohantavirus, family Hantaviridae, we have employed cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) for three New World hantaviruses: Andes (ANDV), Sin Nombre (SNV), and Black Creek Canal (BCCV). Building upon our prior cryo-EM and cryo-tomography study of the Old World hantavirus, Hantaan virus (HTNV), we have expanded our studies to examine the entire virion population present in cell culture supernatant. Hence, in contrast to the prior cryo-EM/ET studies in which we used a polyethylene precipitation, a sucrose gradient, and a sucrose cushion, we used two sucrose cushions. We inactivated the material after the first cushion. We tested the method using HTNV which has a known cryo-EM structure and observed equivalent results. Therefore, we used this method to assess the particle distribution of the New World hantaviruses by cryo-EM. Cryo-EM images showed a diverse range of sizes and morphologies for the New World viruses that we classified as round, tubular, and irregular. Strikingly, BCCV virions were mostly tubular. These first cryo-EM images of the New World Orthohantavirus confirm prior EM observations that noted tubular projections of SNV at the plasma membrane during virion morphogenesis but were not confirmed. These findings underscore the need for further investigation of virion morphogenesis of the Orthohantavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amar Parvate
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA; (A.P.)
| | - Evan P. Williams
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA, (M.K.T.)
| | - Mariah K. Taylor
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA, (M.K.T.)
| | - Yong-Kyu Chu
- Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40202, USA;
| | - Jason Lanman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA; (A.P.)
| | | | - Colleen B. Jonsson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA, (M.K.T.)
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Blancett CD, Monninger MK, Nguessan CA, Kuehl KA, Rossi CA, Olschner SP, Williams PL, Goodman SL, Sun MG. Utilization of Capsules for Negative Staining of Viral Samples within Biocontainment. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 28745647 DOI: 10.3791/56122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is used to observe the ultrastructure of viruses and other microbial pathogens with nanometer resolution. Most biological materials do not contain dense elements capable of scattering electrons to create an image; therefore, a negative stain, which places dense heavy metal salts around the sample, is required. In order to visualize viruses in suspension under the TEM they must be applied to small grids coated with a transparent surface only nanometers thick. Due to their small size and fragility, these grids are difficult to handle and easily moved by air currents. The thin surface is easily damaged, leaving the sample difficult or impossible to image. Infectious viruses must be handled in a biosafety cabinet (BSC) and some require a biocontainment laboratory environment. Staining viruses in biosafety levels (BSL)-3 and -4 is especially challenging because these environments are more turbulent and technicians are required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE), which decreases dexterity. In this study, we evaluated a new device to assist in negative staining viruses in biocontainment. The device is a capsule that works as a specialized pipette tip. Once grids are loaded into the capsule, the user simply aspirates reagents into the capsule to deliver the virus and stains to the encapsulated grid, thus eliminating user handling of grids. Although this technique was designed specifically for use in BSL-3 or -4 biocontainment, it can ease sample preparation in any lab environment by enabling easy negative staining of virus. This same method can also be applied to prepare negative stained TEM specimens of nanoparticles, macromolecules and similar specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candace D Blancett
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | - Mitchell K Monninger
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | - Chrystal A Nguessan
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | - Kathleen A Kuehl
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | - Cynthia A Rossi
- Diagnostic Systems Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | - Scott P Olschner
- Diagnostic Systems Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | - Priscilla L Williams
- Diagnostic Systems Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
| | | | - Mei G Sun
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID);
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Blancett CD, Fetterer DP, Koistinen KA, Morazzani EM, Monninger MK, Piper AE, Kuehl KA, Kearney BJ, Norris SL, Rossi CA, Glass PJ, Sun MG. Accurate virus quantitation using a Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) detector in a scanning electron microscope. J Virol Methods 2017; 248:136-144. [PMID: 28668710 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A method for accurate quantitation of virus particles has long been sought, but a perfect method still eludes the scientific community. Electron Microscopy (EM) quantitation is a valuable technique because it provides direct morphology information and counts of all viral particles, whether or not they are infectious. In the past, EM negative stain quantitation methods have been cited as inaccurate, non-reproducible, and with detection limits that were too high to be useful. To improve accuracy and reproducibility, we have developed a method termed Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy - Virus Quantitation (STEM-VQ), which simplifies sample preparation and uses a high throughput STEM detector in a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) coupled with commercially available software. In this paper, we demonstrate STEM-VQ with an alphavirus stock preparation to present the method's accuracy and reproducibility, including a comparison of STEM-VQ to viral plaque assay and the ViroCyt Virus Counter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candace D Blancett
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - David P Fetterer
- Biostatistics Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Keith A Koistinen
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Elaine M Morazzani
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Mitchell K Monninger
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Ashley E Piper
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Kathleen A Kuehl
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Brian J Kearney
- Diagnostics Systems Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Sarah L Norris
- Biostatistics Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Cynthia A Rossi
- Diagnostics Systems Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Pamela J Glass
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States
| | - Mei G Sun
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, United States.
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