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Cutts T, Leung A, Banadyga L, Krishnan J. Inactivation Validation of Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa Viruses in AVL and Ethanol-Treated Viral Cultures. Viruses 2024; 16:1354. [PMID: 39339831 PMCID: PMC11436171 DOI: 10.3390/v16091354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2024] [Revised: 08/16/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
High-consequence pathogens such as the Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa viruses are handled in maximum-containment biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) laboratories. Genetic material is often isolated from such viruses and subsequently removed from BSL-4 laboratories for a multitude of downstream analyses using readily accessible technologies and equipment available at lower-biosafety level laboratories. However, it is essential to ensure that these materials are free of viable viruses before removal from BSL-4 laboratories to guarantee sample safety. This study details the in-house procedure used for validating the inactivation of Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa virus cultures after incubation with AVL lysis buffer (Qiagen) and ethanol. This study's findings show that no viable virus was detectable when high-titer cultures of Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa viruses were incubated with AVL lysis buffer for 10 min, followed by an equal volume of 95% ethanol for 3 min, using a method with a sensitivity of ≤0.8 log10 TCID50 as the limit of detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd Cutts
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (T.C.); (A.L.); (L.B.)
| | - Anders Leung
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (T.C.); (A.L.); (L.B.)
| | - Logan Banadyga
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (T.C.); (A.L.); (L.B.)
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - Jay Krishnan
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (T.C.); (A.L.); (L.B.)
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Welch JL, Shrestha R, Hutchings H, Pal N, Levings R, Robbe-Austerman S, Palinski R, Shanmuganatham KK. Inactivation of highly transmissible livestock and avian viruses including influenza A and Newcastle disease virus for molecular diagnostics. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1304022. [PMID: 38515532 PMCID: PMC10955088 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1304022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
There is a critical need for an inactivation method that completely inactivates pathogens at the time of sample collection while maintaining the nucleic acid quality required for diagnostic PCR testing. This inactivation method is required to alleviate concerns about transmission potential, minimize shipping complications and cost, and enable testing in lower containment laboratories, thereby enhancing disease diagnostics through improved turn-around time. This study evaluated a panel of 10 surrogate viruses that represent highly pathogenic animal diseases. These results showed that a commercial PrimeStore® molecular transport media (PSMTM) completely inactivated all viruses tested by >99.99%, as determined by infectivity and serial passage assays. However, the detection of viral nucleic acid by qRT-PCR was comparable in PSMTM and control-treated conditions. These results were consistent when viruses were evaluated in the presence of biological material such as sera and cloacal swabs to mimic diagnostic sample conditions for non-avian and avian viruses, respectively. The results of this study may be utilized by diagnostic testing laboratories for highly pathogenic agents affecting animal and human populations. These results may be used to revise guidance for select agent diagnostic testing and the shipment of infectious substances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Karthik K. Shanmuganatham
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
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Das A, Ahmed Z, Xu L, Jia W. Assessment and verification of chemical inactivation of peste des petits ruminants virus by virus isolation following virus capture using Nanotrap magnetic virus particles. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0068923. [PMID: 37655907 PMCID: PMC10580900 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00689-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Research including diagnosis on highly contagious viruses at the molecular level such as PCR and next-generation sequencing requires complete inactivation of the virus to ensure biosafety and biosecurity so that any accidental release of the virus does not compromise the safety of the susceptible population and the environment. In this work, peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) was inactivated with chemical agents, and the virus inactivation was confirmed by virus isolation (VI) using Vero cells. Since the chemical agents are cytotoxic, inactivated virus (PPRV) was diluted 1:100 to neutralize cytotoxicity, and the residual viruses (if any) were captured using Nanotrap magnetic virus particles (NMVPs). The NMVPs and the captured viruses were subjected to VI. No CPE was observed, indicating complete inactivation, and the results were further supported by real-time RT-PCR. This new protocol to verify virus inactivation can be applicable to other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaresh Das
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Reagents and Vaccine Services Section, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Orient Point, New York, USA
| | - Zaheer Ahmed
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Reagents and Vaccine Services Section, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Orient Point, New York, USA
| | - Lizhe Xu
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Reagents and Vaccine Services Section, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Orient Point, New York, USA
| | - Wei Jia
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Reagents and Vaccine Services Section, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Orient Point, New York, USA
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Evaluation of Five Buffers for Inactivation of Monkeypox Virus and Feasibility of Virus Detection Using the Panther Fusion® Open Access System. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102227. [PMID: 36298782 PMCID: PMC9610623 DOI: 10.3390/v14102227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid diagnosis is key to containing viral outbreaks. However, for the current monkeypox outbreak the major deterrent to rapid testing is the requirement for higher biocontainment of potentially infectious monkeypox virus specimens. The current CDC guidelines require the DNA extraction process before PCR amplification to be performed under biosafety level 3 unless vaccinated personnel are performing assays. This increases the turn-around time and makes certain laboratories insufficiently equipped to handle specimens from patients with suspected monkeypox infection. We investigated the ability of five commercially available lysis buffers and heat for inactivation of monkeypox virus. We also optimized the use of monkeypox virus in Hologic® Panther Specimen Lysis Buffer for detection of virus in the Panther Fusion® Open Access System using published generic and clade specific monkeypox virus primers and probes.
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Jansen van Vuren P, Singanallur NB, Keck H, Eschbaumer M, Vosloo W. Chemical inactivation of foot-and-mouth disease virus in bovine tongue epithelium for safe transport and downstream processing. J Virol Methods 2022; 305:114539. [PMID: 35523370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2022.114539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial tissue or vesicular fluid from an unruptured or recently ruptured vesicle is the sample of choice for confirmatory laboratory diagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). However, in 'FMD-free' countries the transport and downstream processing of such samples from potentially infected animals present a biosafety risk, particularly during heightened surveillance, potentially involving decentralised testing in laboratories without adequate biocontainment facilities. In such circumstances, rapid inactivation of virus, if present, prior to transport becomes a necessity, while still maintaining the integrity of diagnostic analytes. Tongue epithelium collected from cattle infected with FMD virus (FMDV) of serotype O (O/ALG/3/2014 - Lineage O/ME-SA/Ind-2001d) or A (A/IRN/22/2015 - Lineage A/ASIA/G-VII) was incubated in the PAXGene Tissue System Fixative (pH 4) and Stabiliser (pH 6.5) components respectively, in McIlvaine's citrate-phosphate buffer (pH 2.6) or in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) at room temperature for 2, 6, 24 or 48h. Following incubation, tissues were homogenised and tested by virus isolation and titration using LFBKαVβ6 cells. The integrity of FMD viral RNA was assessed by RT-qPCR (3Dpol coding region), Sanger sequencing of the VP1 region and transfection of LFBKαVβ6 cells to recover infectious virus. Viable virus could be recovered from samples incubated in PBS for at least 48hours. The PAXgene Tissue System Stabiliser component yielded variable results dependent on virus serotype, requiring at least 6hours of incubation to inactivate A/IRN/22/2015 in most samples, whereas the Fixative component required up to 2hours in some samples. McIlvaine's citrate-phosphate buffer rapidly inactivated both viruses within 2hours of incubation. There was no demonstrable degradation of FMD viral RNA resulting from incubation in any of the buffers for up to 48hours, as assessed by RT-qPCR, and 24hours by sequencing and transfection to recover infectious virus. McIlvaine's citrate-phosphate buffer (pH 2.6) is easy to prepare, inexpensive and inactivates serotype A and O FMDV in epithelial tissue within 2hours, while maintaining RNA integrity for downstream diagnostic processes and virus characterisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petrus Jansen van Vuren
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, 5 Portarlington rd, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Hanna Keck
- National Reference Laboratory for FMD, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Michael Eschbaumer
- National Reference Laboratory for FMD, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Wilna Vosloo
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, 5 Portarlington rd, Geelong, VIC, Australia.
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McCleary S, McCarthy RR, Strong R, Edwards J, Crooke H. Inactivation of African Swine Fever Virus by reagents commonly used in containment laboratories. J Virol Methods 2021; 295:114203. [PMID: 34097940 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Rapid and effective virus inactivation is an essential step for safe diagnostic testing and for research and vaccine development using infectious viruses. We characterised the reduction of African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) infectivity using Virkon™ S (Lanxess) 1% w/v disinfectant, FACS™ Lysing buffer (BD), and AVL™ buffer (Qiagen), using porcine cell culture. No virus was detected following a 30 s 20:1 v/v mixing ratio of Virkon™ S 1% with high titre ASFV, supporting its effective use as a laboratory surface disinfectant. FACS™ Lysing and AVL™ buffers also inactivated ASFV, permitting safe removal of treated infected samples from high containment facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen McCleary
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
| | - Ronan R McCarthy
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
| | - Rebecca Strong
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
| | - Jane Edwards
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
| | - Helen Crooke
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
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Carvalho AF, Rocha RP, Gonçalves AP, Silva TBS, Sato HI, Vuitika L, Bagno FF, Sérgio SAR, Figueiredo MM, Martins RB, Souza JP, Arruda E, Fernandes APSM, Alves PA, Teixeira SMR, da Fonseca FG. The use of denaturing solution as collection and transport media to improve SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection and reduce infection of laboratory personnel. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:531-539. [PMID: 33788178 PMCID: PMC8010291 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00469-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate testing to detect SARS-CoV-2 RNA is key to counteract the virus spread. Nonetheless, the number of diagnostic laboratories able to perform qPCR tests is limited, particularly in developing countries. We describe the use of a virus-inactivating, denaturing solution (DS) to decrease virus infectivity in clinical specimens without affecting RNA integrity. Swab samples were collected from infected patients and from laboratory personnel using a commercially available viral transport solution and the in-house DS. Samples were tested by RT-qPCR, and exposure to infective viruses was also accessed by ELISA. The DS used did not interfere with viral genome detection and was able to maintain RNA integrity for up to 16 days at room temperature. Furthermore, virus loaded onto DS were inactivated, as attested by attempts to grow SARS-CoV-2 in cell monolayers after DS desalt filtration to remove toxic residues. The DS described here provides a strategy to maintain diagnostic accuracy and protects diagnostic laboratory personnel from accidental infection, as it has helped to protect our lab crew.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex F Carvalho
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Raissa P Rocha
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Andreza P Gonçalves
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
- Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz/FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 30190-002, Brazil
| | - Thaís B S Silva
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
- Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz/FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 30190-002, Brazil
| | - Hugo I Sato
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Larissa Vuitika
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Flavia F Bagno
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Sarah A R Sérgio
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Maria M Figueiredo
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo B Martins
- Virology Research Center, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 14040900, Brazil
| | - Juliano P Souza
- Virology Research Center, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 14040900, Brazil
| | - Eurico Arruda
- Virology Research Center, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 14040900, Brazil
| | - Ana P S M Fernandes
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Pedro A Alves
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
- Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz/FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 30190-002, Brazil
| | - Santuza M R Teixeira
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil
| | - Flavio G da Fonseca
- Centro de Tecnologia em Vacinas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP: 31210-260, Brazil.
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Lin P, Tsai H, Ho T. Food Safety Gaps between Consumers' Expectations and Perceptions: Development and Verification of a Gap-Assessment Tool. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E6328. [PMID: 32878088 PMCID: PMC7503573 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In recent decades, food safety has become a major concern due to frequent food safety incidents in many countries. This may lead to increased health risks associated with low quality food consumption, thereby reducing consumer trust in food safety. A better understanding of consumer perceptions of food safety can improve indicators that do not meet consumer expectations. We propose a food safety gap model with four gap-construct based on consumer expectations and perceptions. The model was empirically tested through a survey of 25 items, and then assessed for gaps through the importance-performance analysis (IPA). From a sample of 697 Taiwanese consumers, we found a huge gap between consumer expectations and perceptions related to food safety. More importantly, the results of the IPA indicate that most items must be immediately improved, which is vital in order to mitigate the risk of food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paohui Lin
- Department of Business Management, National Sun Yat-sen University No. 70, Lien-Hai Rd., Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan; (P.L.); (H.T.)
| | - Hsientang Tsai
- Department of Business Management, National Sun Yat-sen University No. 70, Lien-Hai Rd., Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan; (P.L.); (H.T.)
| | - Tzuya Ho
- Business School, Shantou University, 243 Daxue Rd., Shantou 515063, Guangdong, China
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Pastorino B, Touret F, Gilles M, Luciani L, de Lamballerie X, Charrel RN. Evaluation of Chemical Protocols for Inactivating SARS-CoV-2 Infectious Samples. Viruses 2020; 12:v12060624. [PMID: 32521706 PMCID: PMC7354533 DOI: 10.3390/v12060624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical samples collected in coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), patients are commonly manipulated in biosafety level 2 laboratories for molecular diagnostic purposes. Here, we tested French norm NF-EN-14476+A2 derived from European standard EN-14885 to assess the risk of manipulating infectious viruses prior to RNA extraction. SARS-CoV-2 cell-culture supernatant and nasopharyngeal samples (virus-spiked samples and clinical samples collected in COVID-19 patients) were used to measure the reduction of infectivity after 10 min contact with lysis buffer containing various detergents and chaotropic agents. A total of thirteen protocols were evaluated. Two commercially available formulations showed the ability to reduce infectivity by at least 6 log 10, whereas others proved less effective.
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Pastorino B, Touret F, Gilles M, Luciani L, de Lamballerie X, Charrel RN. Evaluation of Chemical Protocols for Inactivating SARS-CoV-2 Infectious Samples. Viruses 2020; 12. [PMID: 32521706 DOI: 10.1101/2020.04.11.036855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical samples collected in coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), patients are commonly manipulated in biosafety level 2 laboratories for molecular diagnostic purposes. Here, we tested French norm NF-EN-14476+A2 derived from European standard EN-14885 to assess the risk of manipulating infectious viruses prior to RNA extraction. SARS-CoV-2 cell-culture supernatant and nasopharyngeal samples (virus-spiked samples and clinical samples collected in COVID-19 patients) were used to measure the reduction of infectivity after 10 minute contact with lysis buffer containing various detergents and chaotropic agents. A total of thirteen protocols were evaluated. Two commercially available formulations showed the ability to reduce infectivity by at least 6 log 10, whereas others proved less effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Pastorino
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Franck Touret
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Magali Gilles
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Lea Luciani
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Xavier de Lamballerie
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Remi N Charrel
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
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