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Stoufer S, Soorneedi AR, Kim M, Moore MD. Sample Processing and Concentration Methods for Viruses from Foods and the Environment Prior to Detection. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2024; 15:455-472. [PMID: 38277693 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-072023-034431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Viruses are the leading cause of foodborne illness globally. Concentration of viruses from samples is important for detection because viral contamination of foods often occurs at low levels. In general, virus concentration methods can be classified as either nonspecific, exploiting the relatively homogeneous physicochemical properties of the virus to separate/concentrate it from the sample matrix, or specific, relying on recognition elements such as antibodies to specifically capture and separate viruses from foods. Numerous nonspecific and specific techniques for virus concentration have been reported, each with its own advantages and limitations. Factors to consider can include reagent and equipment costs, time-to-result, ease of use, and potential to eliminate matrix-associated inhibitors. The purpose of this review is to survey the different foodborne virus concentration techniques and their efficacy in various food and environmental matrices as well as discuss some emerging techniques for purification and concentration of viral pathogens from food samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sloane Stoufer
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA;
| | - Anand R Soorneedi
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA;
| | - Minji Kim
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA;
| | - Matthew D Moore
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA;
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Abid I, Blanco A, Al-Otaibi N, Guix S, Costafreda MI, Pintó RM, Bosch A. Dynamic and Seasonal Distribution of Enteric Viruses in Surface and Well Water in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia). Pathogens 2023; 12:1405. [PMID: 38133289 PMCID: PMC10747075 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12121405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses are the major cause of gastroenteritis and enteric hepatitis worldwide, but in some areas like Saudi Arabia, little is known about their presence in water sources. The available information from clinical samples is not enough to figure out their actual prevalence. The aim of this study was to gather information for the first time in Saudi Arabia on the presence of the Norovirus (NoV) genogroup GI and GII, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV) in water. For this purpose, thirteen monthly samples were collected from Lake Wadi Hanifa and surrounding wells from December 2014 to November 2015. Viruses were detected and quantified using real-time RT-qPCR. Despite HEV findings being anecdotic, our results highlight interesting behaviors of the other viruses. There was a higher prevalence of noroviruses in Wadi Hanifa samples than in well water samples (46.43% vs. 12.5% of NoV GI; 66.67% vs. 8.33% of NoV GII). On the contrary, similar levels of HAV positivity were observed (40.48% in surface water vs. 43.06% in well water). Also, a strong influence of flooding events on HAV and NoV GI occurrence was observed in both surface and well water samples, with NoV GII apparently not affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Islem Abid
- Center of Excellence in Biotechnology Research, College of Applied Medical Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Albert Blanco
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.); (S.G.); (M.I.C.); (R.M.P.)
- Research Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA-UB), University of Barcelona, 08921 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nawal Al-Otaibi
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Science College, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Susana Guix
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.); (S.G.); (M.I.C.); (R.M.P.)
- Research Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA-UB), University of Barcelona, 08921 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria I. Costafreda
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.); (S.G.); (M.I.C.); (R.M.P.)
- Research Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA-UB), University of Barcelona, 08921 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa M. Pintó
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.); (S.G.); (M.I.C.); (R.M.P.)
- Research Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA-UB), University of Barcelona, 08921 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Bosch
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.); (S.G.); (M.I.C.); (R.M.P.)
- Research Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA-UB), University of Barcelona, 08921 Barcelona, Spain
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Alotaibi R, Eifan S, Hanif A, Nour I, Alkathiri A. Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Cross-Assembly Phages in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2167. [PMID: 37764011 PMCID: PMC10535421 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11092167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The most common DNA virus found in wastewaters globally is the cross-assembly phage (crAssphage). King Saud University wastewater treatment plant (KSU-WWTP); Manfoha wastewater treatment plant (MN-WWTP); and the Embassy wastewater treatment plant (EMB-WWTP) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia were selected, and 36 untreated sewage water samples during the year 2022 were used in the current study. The meteorological impact on crAssphage prevalence was investigated. CrAssphage prevalence was recorded using PCR and Sanger sequencing. The molecular diversity of crAssphage sequences was studied for viral gene segments from the major capsid protein (MCP) and membrane protein containing the peptidoglycan-binding domain (MP-PBD). KSU-WWTP and EMB-WWTP showed a higher prevalence of crAssphage (83.3%) than MN-WWTP (75%). Phylogenetic analysis of MCP and MP-PBD segments depicted a close relationship to the Japanese isolates. The MCP gene from the current study's isolate WW/2M/SA/2022 depicted zero evolutionary divergence from 3057_98020, 2683_104905, and 4238_99953 isolates (d = 0.000) from Japan. A significant influence of temporal variations on the prevalence of crAssphage was detected in the three WWTPs. CrAssphage displayed the highest prevalence at high temperatures (33-44 °C), low relative humidity (6-14%), and moderate wind speed (16-21 Km/h). The findings provided pioneering insights into crAssphage prevalence and its genetic diversity in WWTPs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Atif Hanif
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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Gonçalves-Brito AS, Magaldi M, Farias BO, Nascimento APA, Flores C, Montenegro KS, Lopes-Carvalho M, Gimenez A, Costa VSC, Assunção VC, Quidorne CS, Bianco K, Clementino MM. Environmental genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:653-662. [PMID: 37254912 PMCID: wh_2023_034 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology can be a complementary approach for monitoring SARS-CoV-2 prevalence, diversity, and geographic distribution. It is a complementary approach regarding its prevalence and diversity, and geographic distribution. The study aimed to evaluate the genetic diversity of SARS-CoV-2 in two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Samples were collected over a period of January to December 2021 and were concentrated with PEG8000 and the presence of SARS-CoV-2 was detected using E and N1 genes. Partial sequencing of the SARS-CoV-2 genomes resulted in the identification of variants of concern and variants of interest throughout the collection period. It was possible to identify the Mu, Delta, Gamma and Omicron variants in WWTP1; on the contrary, no variants were observed in WWTP2. To the best of our knowledge, we detected the variant Mu (B.1.621) containing characteristic mutations (S:E484K, S:N501Y) from WWTP, for the first time, in Brazil. Another Mu variant detected from clinical surveillance was announced one month after our finding. The detection of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater can serve as a tool to monitor the prevalence and epidemiology in each community, helping to understand the spread of the virus among the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andressa S Gonçalves-Brito
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail: ; Fiocruz Genomic Network, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil
| | - Mariana Magaldi
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail: ; Fiocruz Genomic Network, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil
| | - Beatriz Oliveira Farias
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail: ; Fiocruz Genomic Network, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Alves Nascimento
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Claudia Flores
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Kaylanne S Montenegro
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Maiara Lopes-Carvalho
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Aline Gimenez
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Vinícius Souza Carvalho Costa
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Vinícius Carneiro Assunção
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Camila Silva Quidorne
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Kayo Bianco
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail: ; Fiocruz Genomic Network, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil; COVID-19 Monitoring Network in Wastewater, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maysa M Clementino
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - INCQS, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil E-mail: ; Fiocruz Genomic Network, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 4365, Brazil; COVID-19 Monitoring Network in Wastewater, São Paulo, Brazil
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Eifan S, Maniah K, Nour I, Hanif A, Yassin MT, Al-Ashkar I, Abid I. Pepper Mild Mottle Virus as a Potential Indicator of Fecal Contamination in Influents of Wastewater Treatment Plants in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11041038. [PMID: 37110461 PMCID: PMC10144068 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11041038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Several indicators of fecal pollution in water resources are continuously monitored for their reliability and, of particular interest, their correlation to human enteric viruses-not justified by traditional bacterial indicators. Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) has recently been proposed as a successful viral surrogate of human waterborne viruses; however, in Saudi Arabia there are no available data in terms of its prevalence and concentration in water bodies. The concentration of PMMoV in three different wastewater treatment plants (King Saud University (KSU), Manfoha (MN), and Embassy (EMB) wastewater treatment plants (WWTP)) was measured using qRT-PCR during a one-year period and compared to the human adenovirus (HAdV), which is highly persistent and considered an indicator for viral-mediated fecal contamination. PMMoV was found in ~94% of the entire wastewater samples (91.6-100%), with concentrations ranging from 62 to 3.5 × 107 genome copies/l (GC/l). However, HAdV was detected in 75% of raw water samples (~67-83%). The HAdV concentration ranged between 1.29 × 103 GC/L and 1.26 × 107 GC/L. Higher positive correlation between PMMoV and HAdV concentrations was detected at MN-WWTP (r = 0.6148) than at EMB-WWTP (r = 0.207). Despite the lack of PMMoV and HAdV seasonality, a higher positive correlation (r = 0.918) of PMMoV to HAdV was recorded at KSU-WWTP in comparison to EMB-WWTP (r = 0.6401) around the different seasons. Furthermore, meteorological factors showed no significant influence on PMMoV concentrations (p > 0.05), thus supporting the use of PMMoV as a possible fecal indicator of wastewater contamination and associated public health issues, particularly at MN-WWTP. However, a continuous monitoring of the PMMoV distribution pattern and concentration in other aquatic environments, as well as its correlation to other significant human enteric viruses, is essential for ensuring its reliability and reproducibility as a fecal pollution indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Eifan
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khalid Maniah
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Islam Nour
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Atif Hanif
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Taha Yassin
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim Al-Ashkar
- Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Islem Abid
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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Alanazi F, Nour I, Hanif A, Al-Ashkar I, Aljowaie RM, Eifan S. Novel findings in context of molecular diversity and abundance of bacteriophages in wastewater environments of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273343. [PMID: 35980993 PMCID: PMC9387821 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The diversity among bacteriophages depends on different factors like ecology, temperature conditions and genetic pool. Current study focused on isolation, identification and diversity of phages from 34 sewage water samples collected from two different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), King Saud University wastewater treatment plants (KSU-WWTP) and Manfoha wastewater treatment plants (MN-WWTP) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Samples were analyzed by PCR and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). Siphoviridae, Podoviridae and Myoviridae families were detected by family-specific PCR and highest prevalence of Myoviridae 29.40% was found at MN-WWTP followed by 11.76% at KSU-WWTP. Siphoviridae was detected 11.76% at MN-WWTP and 5.88% at KSU-WWTP. Lowest prevalence for Podoviridae family (5.88%) was recorded at MN-WWTP. Significant influence of temporal variations on prevalence of Myoviridae and Siphoviridae was detected in both WWTP and MN-WWTP, respectively. Highest phage prevalence was obtained in August (75%), followed by September (50%). Highest phage prevalence was recorded at a temperature range of 29–33°C. Significant influence of temperature on the prevalence of Myoviridae phages was detected at MN-WWTP. Four bacteriophages with various abundance levels were identified by NGS. Cronobacter virus Esp2949-1 was found first time with highest abundance (4.41%) in wastewater of Riyadh. Bordetella virus BPP1 (4.14%), Dickeya virus Limestone (1.55%) and Ralstonia virus RSA1 (1.04%) were also detected from samples of MN-WWTP. Highest occurrence of Bordetella virus BPP1 (67%) and (33.33%) was recorded at KSU-WWTP and MN-WWTP, respectively. Highest Bordetella virus BPP1 occurrence was recorded in September (50%) followed by August (40%). The findings of study showed new insights of phage diversity from wastewater sources and further large-scale data studies are suggested for comprehensive understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad Alanazi
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Islam Nour
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Atif Hanif
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim Al-Ashkar
- Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Reem M. Aljowaie
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saleh Eifan
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- * E-mail:
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Lothert K, Eilts F, Wolff MW. Quantification methods for viruses and virus-like particles applied in biopharmaceutical production processes. Expert Rev Vaccines 2022; 21:1029-1044. [PMID: 35483057 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2022.2072302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Effective cell-based production processes of virus particles are the foundation for the global availability of classical vaccines, gene therapeutic vectors, and viral oncolytic treatments. Their production is subject to regulatory standards ensuring the safety and efficacy of the pharmaceutical product. Process analytics must be fast and reliable to provide an efficient process development and a robust process control during production. Additionally, for the product release, the drug compound and the contaminants must be quantified by assays specified by regulatory authorities. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes analytical methods suitable for the quantification of viruses or virus-like particles. The different techniques are grouped by the analytical question that may be addressed. Accordingly, methods focus on the infectivity of the drug component on the one hand, and on particle counting and the quantification of viral elements on the other hand. The different techniques are compared regarding their advantages, drawbacks, required assay time, and sample throughput. EXPERT OPINION Among the technologies summarized, a tendency toward fast methods, allowing a high throughput and a wide applicability, can be foreseen. Driving forces for this progress are miniaturization and automation, and the continuous enhancement of process-relevant databases for a successful future process control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keven Lothert
- Department of Life Science Engineering, Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen (THM), Giessen, Germany
| | - Friederike Eilts
- Department of Life Science Engineering, Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen (THM), Giessen, Germany
| | - Michael W Wolff
- Department of Life Science Engineering, Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen (THM), Giessen, Germany.,Branch for Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Giessen, Germany
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Yang W, Cai C, Dai X. Interactions between virus surrogates and sewage sludge vary by viral analyte: Recovery, persistence, and sorption. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 210:117995. [PMID: 34998072 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sewage sludge, as a reservoir of viruses, may pose threats to human health. Understanding how virus particles interact with sludge is the key to controlling virus exposure and transmission. In this study, we investigated the recovery, survivability, and sorption of four typical virus surrogates with different structures (Phi6, MS2, T4, and Phix174) in sewage sludge. The most effective elution method varies by viral analyte, while the ultrafiltration method could significantly reduce the recovery loss for all four viruses. Compared with nonenveloped viruses, the poor recoveries of Phi6 during elution (<15%) limited its efficient detection. The inactivation kinetics of four viruses in solid-containing sludge were significantly faster than those in solid-removed samples at 25 °C, indicating that the solid fraction of sludge played an important role in virus inactivation. Although enveloped Phi6 was more vulnerable in both solid-removed and solid-containing sludge samples, it could remain viable for several hours at 25 °C and several days at 4 °C, which may pose an infection risk during sludge collection, transportation, and treatment process. The adsorption and desorption behavior of viruses in sludge could be affected by virus envelope structure, capsid proteins, and virus particle size. Phi6 adsorption to sludge was great with log KF of 6.51 ± 0.53, followed by Phix174, MS2, and T4. Additionally, more than 95% of Phi6, MS2, and T4 adsorbed to sludge were strongly bound, and a considerable fraction of strongly-bound virus was confirmed to retain viability. These results shed light on the environmental behavior of viruses in sewage sludge and provide a theoretical basis for the risk assessment for sludge treatment and disposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Chen Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Xiaohu Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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