Influence of gene polymorphisms in ulcer healing process after superficial venous surgery

Glycocalyx disruption, endothelial dysfunction and vascular remodeling as underlying mechanisms and treatment targets of chronic venous disease

The glycocalyx is an essential structural and functional component of endothelial cells. Extensive hemodynamic changes cause endothelial glycocalyx disruption and vascular dysfunction, leading to multiple arterial and venous disorders. Chronic venous disease (CVD) is a common disorder of the lower extremities with major health and socio-economic implications, but complex pathophysiology. Genetic aberrations accentuated by environmental factors, behavioral tendencies, and hormonal disturbances promote venous reflux, valve incompetence, and venous blood stasis. Increased venous hydrostatic pressure and changes in shear-stress cause glycocalyx injury, endothelial dysfunction, secretion of adhesion molecules, leukocyte recruitment/activation, and release of cytokines, chemokines, and hypoxia-inducible factor, causing smooth muscle cell switch from contractile to synthetic proliferative phenotype, imbalance in matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), degradation of collagen and elastin, and venous tissue remodeling, leading to venous dilation and varicose veins. In the advanced stages of CVD, leukocyte infiltration of the vein wall causes progressive inflammation, fibrosis, disruption of junctional proteins, accumulation of tissue metabolites and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and iron deposition, leading to skin changes and venous leg ulcer (VLU). CVD management includes compression stockings, venotonics, and surgical intervention. In addition to its antithrombotic and fibrinolytic properties, literature suggests sulodexide benefits in reducing inflammation, promoting VLU healing, improving endothelial function, exhibiting venotonic properties, and inhibiting MMP-9. Understanding the role of glycocalyx, endothelial dysfunction, and vascular remodeling should help delineate the underlying mechanisms and develop improved biomarkers and targeted therapy for CVD and VLU.

LINE-1 global DNA methylation, iron homeostasis genes, sex and age in sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL)

BACKGROUND

Sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) is an abrupt loss of hearing, still idiopathic in most of cases. Several mechanisms have been proposed including genetic and epigenetic interrelationships also considering iron homeostasis genes, ferroptosis and cellular stressors such as iron excess and dysfunctional mitochondrial superoxide dismutase activity.

RESULTS

We investigated 206 SSNHL patients and 420 healthy controls for the following genetic variants in the iron pathway: SLC40A1 - 8CG (ferroportin; FPN1), HAMP - 582AG (hepcidin; HEPC), HFE C282Y and H63D (homeostatic iron regulator), TF P570S (transferrin) and SOD2 A16V in the mitochondrial superoxide dismutase-2 gene. Among patients, SLC40A1 - 8GG homozygotes were overrepresented (8.25% vs 2.62%; P = 0.0015) as well SOD2 16VV genotype (32.0% vs 24.3%; P = 0.037) accounting for increased SSNHL risk (OR = 3.34; 1.54-7.29 and OR = 1.47; 1.02-2.12, respectively). Moreover, LINE-1 methylation was inversely related (r2 = 0.042; P = 0.001) with hearing loss score assessed as pure tone average (PTA, dB HL), and the trend was maintained after SLC40A1 - 8CG and HAMP - 582AG genotype stratification (ΔSLC40A1 = + 8.99 dB HL and ΔHAMP = - 6.07 dB HL). In multivariate investigations, principal component analysis (PCA) yielded PC1 (PTA, age, LINE-1, HAMP, SLC40A1) and PC2 (sex, HFEC282Y, SOD2, HAMP) among the five generated PCs, and logistic regression analysis ascribed to PC1 an inverse association with moderate/severe/profound HL (OR = 0.60; 0.42-0.86; P = 0.0006) and with severe/profound HL (OR = 0.52; 0.35-0.76; P = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Recognizing genetic and epigenetic biomarkers and their mutual interactions in SSNHL is of great value and can help pharmacy science to design by pharmacogenomic data classical or advanced molecules, such as epidrugs, to target new pathways for a better prognosis and treatment of SSNHL.

Essential Metals in the Brain and the Application of Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry for their Detection

Metals are natural component of the ecosystem present throughout the layers of atmosphere; their abundant expression in the brain indicates their importance in the central nervous system (CNS). Within the brain tissue, their distribution is highly compartmentalized, the pattern of which is determined by their primary roles. Bio-imaging of the brain to reveal spatial distribution of metals within specific regions has provided a unique understanding of brain biochemistry and architecture, linking both the structures and the functions through several metal mediated activities. Bioavailability of essential trace metal is needed for normal brain function. However, disrupted metal homeostasis can influence several biochemical pathways in different fields of metabolism and cause characteristic neurological disorders with a typical disease process usually linked with aberrant metal accumulations. In this review we give a brief overview of roles of key essential metals (Iron, Copper and Zinc) including their molecular mechanisms and bio-distribution in the brain as well as their possible involvement in the pathogenesis of related neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, we also reviewed recent applications of Laser Ablation Inductively Couple Plasma Mass Spectrophotometry (LA-ICP-MS) in the detection of both toxic and essential metal dyshomeostasis in neuroscience research and other related brain diseases.

Cis-Segregation of c.1171C>T Stop Codon (p.R391*) in SERPINC1 Gene and c.1691G>A Transition (p.R506Q) in F5 Gene and Selected GWAS Multilocus Approach in Inherited Thrombophilia

Inherited thrombophilia (e.g., venous thromboembolism, VTE) is due to rare loss-of-function mutations in anticoagulant factors genes (i.e., SERPINC1, PROC, PROS1), common gain-of-function mutations in procoagulant factors genes (i.e., F5, F2), and acquired risk conditions. Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) recently recognized several genes associated with VTE though gene defects may unpredictably remain asymptomatic, so calculating the individual genetic predisposition is a challenging task. We investigated a large family with severe, recurrent, early-onset VTE in which two sisters experienced VTE during pregnancies characterized by a perinatal in-utero thrombosis in the newborn and a life-saving pregnancy-interruption because of massive VTE, respectively. A nonsense mutation (CGA > TGA) generating a premature stop-codon (c.1171C>T; p.R391*) in the exon 6 of SERPINC1 gene (1q25.1) causing Antithrombin (AT) deficiency and the common missense mutation (c.1691G>A; p.R506Q) in the exon 10 of F5 gene (1q24.2) (i.e., FV Leiden; rs6025) were coinherited in all the symptomatic members investigated suspecting a cis-segregation further confirmed by STR-linkage-analyses [i.e., SERPINC1 IVS5 (ATT)_5–18, F5 IVS2 (AT)_6–33 and F5 IVS11 (GT)_12–16] and SERPINC1 intragenic variants (i.e., rs5878 and rs677). A multilocus investigation of blood-coagulation balance genes detected the coexistence of FV Leiden (rs6025) in trans with FV HR2-haplotype (p.H1299R; rs1800595) in the aborted fetus, and F11 rs2289252, F12 rs1801020, F13A1 rs5985, and KNG1 rs710446 in the newborn and other members. Common selected gene variants may strongly synergize with less common mutations tuning potential life-threatening conditions when combined with rare severest mutations. Merging classic and newly GWAS-identified gene markers in at risk families is mandatory for VTE risk estimation in the clinical practice, avoiding partial risk score evaluation in unrecognized at risk patients.

Mechanisms of Lower Extremity Vein Dysfunction in Chronic Venous Disease and Implications in Management of Varicose Veins

Chronic venous disease (CVD) is a common venous disorder of the lower extremities. CVD can be manifested as varicose veins (VVs), with dilated and tortuous veins, dysfunctional valves and venous reflux. If not adequately treated, VVs could progress to chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) and lead to venous leg ulcer (VLU). Predisposing familial and genetic factors have been implicated in CVD. Additional environmental, behavioral and dietary factors including sedentary lifestyle and obesity may also contribute to CVD. Alterations in the mRNA expression, protein levels and proteolytic activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been detected in VVs and VLU. MMP expression/activity can be modulated by venous hydrostatic pressure, hypoxia, tissue metabolites, and inflammation. MMPs in turn increase proteolysis of different protein substrates in the extracellular matrix particularly collagen and elastin, leading to weakening of the vein wall. MMPs could also promote venous dilation by increasing the release of endothelium-derived vasodilators and activating potassium channels, leading to smooth muscle hyperpolarization and relaxation. Depending on VVs severity, management usually includes compression stockings, sclerotherapy and surgical removal. Venotonics have also been promoted to decrease the progression of VVs. Sulodexide has also shown benefits in VLU and CVI, and recent data suggest that it could improve venous smooth muscle contraction. Other lines of treatment including induction of endogenous tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) and administration of exogenous synthetic inhibitors of MMPs are being explored, and could provide alternative strategies in the treatment of CVD.

Why Venous Leg Ulcers Have Difficulty Healing: Overview on Pathophysiology, Clinical Consequences, and Treatment

Venous leg ulcers (VLUs) are one of the most common ulcers of the lower extremity. VLU affects many individuals worldwide, could pose a significant socioeconomic burden to the healthcare system, and has major psychological and physical impacts on the affected individual. VLU often occurs in association with post-thrombotic syndrome, advanced chronic venous disease, varicose veins, and venous hypertension. Several demographic, genetic, and environmental factors could trigger chronic venous disease with venous dilation, incompetent valves, venous reflux, and venous hypertension. Endothelial cell injury and changes in the glycocalyx, venous shear-stress, and adhesion molecules could be initiating events in VLU. Increased endothelial cell permeability and leukocyte infiltration, and increases in inflammatory cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, iron deposition, and tissue metabolites also contribute to the pathogenesis of VLU. Treatment of VLU includes compression therapy and endovenous ablation to occlude the axial reflux. Other interventional approaches such as subfascial endoscopic perforator surgery and iliac venous stent have shown mixed results. With good wound care and compression therapy, VLU usually heals within 6 months. VLU healing involves orchestrated processes including hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling and the contribution of different cells including leukocytes, platelets, fibroblasts, vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, and keratinocytes as well as the release of various biomolecules including transforming growth factor-β, cytokines, chemokines, MMPs, tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs), elastase, urokinase plasminogen activator, fibrin, collagen, and albumin. Alterations in any of these physiological wound closure processes could delay VLU healing. Also, these histological and soluble biomarkers can be used for VLU diagnosis and assessment of its progression, responsiveness to healing, and prognosis. If not treated adequately, VLU could progress to non-healed or granulating VLU, causing physical immobility, reduced quality of life, cellulitis, severe infections, osteomyelitis, and neoplastic transformation. Recalcitrant VLU shows prolonged healing time with advanced age, obesity, nutritional deficiencies, colder temperature, preexisting venous disease, deep venous thrombosis, and larger wound area. VLU also has a high, 50-70% recurrence rate, likely due to noncompliance with compression therapy, failure of surgical procedures, incorrect ulcer diagnosis, progression of venous disease, and poorly understood pathophysiology. Understanding the molecular pathways underlying VLU has led to new lines of therapy with significant promise including biologics such as bilayer living skin construct, fibroblast derivatives, and extracellular matrices and non-biologic products such as poly-N-acetyl glucosamine, human placental membranes amnion/chorion allografts, ACT1 peptide inhibitor of connexin 43, sulodexide, growth factors, silver dressings, MMP inhibitors, and modulators of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, the immune response and tissue metabolites. Preventive measures including compression therapy and venotonics could also reduce the risk of progression to chronic venous insufficiency and VLU in susceptible individuals.

COVID-19 and Individual Genetic Susceptibility/Receptivity: Role of ACE1/ACE2 Genes, Immunity, Inflammation and Coagulation. Might the Double X-chromosome in Females Be Protective against SARS-CoV-2 Compared to the Single X-Chromosome in Males?

In December 2019, a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) from a new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was recognized in the city of Wuhan, China. Rapidly, it became an epidemic in China and has now spread throughout the world reaching pandemic proportions. High mortality rates characterize SARS-CoV-2 disease (COVID-19), which mainly affects the elderly, causing unrestrained cytokines-storm and subsequent pulmonary shutdown, also suspected micro thromboembolism events. At the present time, no specific and dedicated treatments, nor approved vaccines, are available, though very promising data come from the use of anti-inflammatory, anti-malaria, and anti-coagulant drugs. In addition, it seems that males are more susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 than females, with males 65% more likely to die from the infection than females. Data from the World Health Organization (WHO) and Chinese scientists show that of all cases about 1.7% of women who contract the virus will die compared with 2.8% of men, and data from Hong Kong hospitals state that 32% of male and 15% of female COVID-19 patients required intensive care or died. On the other hand, the long-term fallout of coronavirus may be worse for women than for men due to social and psychosocial reasons. Regardless of sex- or gender-biased data obtained from WHO and those gathered from sometimes controversial scientific journals, some central points should be considered. Firstly, SARS-CoV-2 has a strong interaction with the human ACE2 receptor, which plays an essential role in cell entry together with transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2); it is interesting to note that the ACE2 gene lays on the X-chromosome, thus allowing females to be potentially heterozygous and differently assorted compared to men who are definitely hemizygous. Secondly, the higher ACE2 expression rate in females, though controversial, might ascribe them the worst prognosis, in contrast with worldwide epidemiological data. Finally, several genes involved in inflammation are located on the X-chromosome, which also contains high number of immune-related genes responsible for innate and adaptive immune responses to infection. Other genes, out from the RAS-pathway, might directly or indirectly impact on the ACE1/ACE2 balance by influencing its main actors (e.g., ABO locus, SRY, SOX3, ADAM17). Unexpectedly, the higher levels of ACE2 or ACE1/ACE2 rebalancing might improve the outcome of COVID-19 in both sexes by reducing inflammation, thrombosis, and death. Moreover, X-heterozygous females might also activate a mosaic advantage and show more pronounced sex-related differences resulting in a sex dimorphism, further favoring them in counteracting the progression of the SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Sex/Gender-Specific Imbalance in CVD: Could Physical Activity Help to Improve Clinical Outcome Targeting CVD Molecular Mechanisms in Women?

In the last two decades, new insights have been gained regarding sex/gender-related differences in cardiovascular disease (CVD). CVD represents the leading cause of death worldwide in both men and women, accounting for at least one-third of all deaths in women and half of deaths in women over 50 years in developing countries. Important sex-related differences in prevalence, presentation, management, and outcomes of different CVDs have been recently discovered, demonstrating sex/gender-specific pathophysiologic features in the presentation and prognosis of CVD in men and women. A large amount of evidence has highlighted the role of sex hormones in protecting women from CVDs, providing an advantage over men that is lost when women reach the menopause stage. This hormonal-dependent shift of sex-related CVD risk consequently affects the overall CVD epidemiology, particularly in light of the increasing trend of population aging. The benefits of physical activity have been recognized for a long time as a powerful preventive approach for both CVD prevention and aging-related morbidity control. Exercise training is indeed a potent physiological stimulus, which reduces primary and secondary cardiovascular events. However, the underlying mechanisms of these positive effects, including from a sex/gender perspective, still need to be fully elucidated. The aim of this work is to provide a review of the evidence linking sex/gender-related differences in CVD, including sex/gender-specific molecular mediators, to explore whether sex- and gender-tailored physical activity may be used as an effective tool to prevent CVD and improve clinical outcomes in women.

"Bridging the Gap" Everything that Could Have Been Avoided If We Had Applied Gender Medicine, Pharmacogenetics and Personalized Medicine in the Gender-Omics and Sex-Omics Era

Gender medicine is the first step of personalized medicine and patient-centred care, an essential development to achieve the standard goal of a holistic approach to patients and diseases. By addressing the interrelation and integration of biological markers (i.e., sex) with indicators of psychological/cultural behaviour (i.e., gender), gender medicine represents the crucial assumption for achieving the personalized health-care required in the third millennium. However, ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ are often misused as synonyms, leading to frequent misunderstandings in those who are not deeply involved in the field. Overall, we have to face the evidence that biological, genetic, epigenetic, psycho-social, cultural, and environmental factors mutually interact in defining sex/gender differences, and at the same time in establishing potential unwanted sex/gender disparities. Prioritizing the role of sex/gender in physiological and pathological processes is crucial in terms of efficient prevention, clinical signs’ identification, prognosis definition, and therapy optimization. In this regard, the omics-approach has become a powerful tool to identify sex/gender-specific disease markers, with potential benefits also in terms of socio-psychological wellbeing for each individual, and cost-effectiveness for National Healthcare systems. “Being a male or being a female” is indeed important from a health point of view and it is no longer possible to avoid “sex and gender lens” when approaching patients. Accordingly, personalized healthcare must be based on evidence from targeted research studies aimed at understanding how sex and gender influence health across the entire life span. The rapid development of genetic tools in the molecular medicine approaches and their impact in healthcare is an example of highly specialized applications that have moved from specialists to primary care providers (e.g., pharmacogenetic and pharmacogenomic applications in routine medical practice). Gender medicine needs to follow the same path and become an established medical approach. To face the genetic, molecular and pharmacological bases of the existing sex/gender gap by means of omics approaches will pave the way to the discovery and identification of novel drug-targets/therapeutic protocols, personalized laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures (sex/gender-omics). In this scenario, the aim of the present review is not to simply resume the state-of-the-art in the field, rather an opportunity to gain insights into gender medicine, spanning from molecular up to social and psychological stances. The description and critical discussion of some key selected multidisciplinary topics considered as paradigmatic of sex/gender differences and sex/gender inequalities will allow to draft and design strategies useful to fill the existing gap and move forward.

Inherited genetic predispositions in F13A1 and F13B genes predict abdominal adhesion formation: identification of gender prognostic indicators

Abdominal adhesions (AA) account for the most common complication of peritoneal surgery with bowel obstruction being the severest problem in the absence of effective predicting biomarkers. Anti-AA-barriers or adhesiolysis did not completely prevent bowel obstruction, although there is evidence they might reduce related complications requiring reoperation. In addition, gender-related predispositions have not been adequately investigated. We explored the role of coagulation Factor XIII (F13A1 and F13B subunit-genes) in patients following laparotomy, mostly median/lower median incision line. Globally, 426 patients (54%,♀), were PCR-SNP-genotyped for FXIIIA V34L (rs5985), FXIIIA P564L (rs5982), FXIIIA Y204F (rs3024477) and FXIIIB H95R (rs6003). Patients' clinical phenotypes were: Group-A (n = 212), those who developed AA, and 55.2% of them developed bowel obstruction (subgroup-A1), the remaining were subgroup-A2; Group B (n = 214) were those who did not develop AA (subgroup-B1; 53.3%) or symptoms/complications (subgroup-B2). Among different laparotomy, colon surgery associated with AA at a major extent (OR = 5.1; 3.24-7.8; P < 0.0001) with different gender scores (♀OR = 5.33; 2.32-12.23; P < 0.0001 and ♂OR = 3.44; 1.58-7.49; P < 0.0001). Among SNPs, P564L (OR = 4.42; 1.45-13.4; P = 0.008) and Y204F (OR = 7.78; 1.62-37.3; P = 0.01) significantly predicted bowel obstruction and survival-analyses yielded interesting gender distinctions (♀HR = 5.28; 2.36-11.8; P = 0.00005; ♂HR = 2.22; 1.31-3.85; P = 0.0034). Active compounds preventing AA belong to the anticoagulant/fibrinolysis areas, suggesting them candidate investigation targets. We identified novel prognostic markers to predict AA/bowel obstruction giving insights to design novel therapeutic and gender prevention programs.

F13A1 Gene Variant (V34L) and Residual Circulating FXIIIA Levels Predict Short- and Long-Term Mortality in Acute Myocardial Infarction after Coronary Angioplasty

Factor XIIIA (FXIIIA) levels are independent predictors of early prognosis after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and the Valine-to-Leucine (V34L) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) seems associated with lower AMI risk. Since the long-term AMI prognosis merits deeper investigation, we performed an observational study evaluating relationships between FXIIIA residual levels, cardiovascular risk-factors, and inherited genetic predispositions. FXIIIA V34L was genotyped in 333 AMI patients and a five-year follow-up was performed. FXIIIA levels assessed at day-zero (d0) and four days after AMI (d4), and conventional risk factors were analyzed, focusing on the development of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). FXIIIA assessed at d0 and d4 was also an independent MACE predictor in the long-term follow-up (FXIIIA_d0, Odds Ratio (OR) = 3.02, 1.79–5.1, p = 0.013; FXIIIA_d4, OR = 4.46, 2.33–8.55, p = 0.0001). FXIIIA_d4 showed the strongest MACE association, suggesting that the FXIIIA protective role is maximized when high levels are maintained for longer time. Conversely, FXIIIA levels stratified by V34L predicted MACE at a lesser extent among L34-carriers (Hazard Risk (HR)_VV34 = 3.89, 2.19–6.87, p = 0.000003; HR_L34-carriers = 2.78, 1.39–5.57, p = 0.0039), and V34L did not predict all MACE, only multiple-MACE occurrence (p = 0.0087). Finally, in survival analysis, heart failure and death differed significantly from stroke and recurrent ischemia (p = 0.0013), with FXIIIA levels appreciably lower in the former (p = 0.05). Overall, genetically-determined FXIIIA levels have a significant long-term prognostic role, suggesting that a pharmacogenetics approach might help to select those AMI patients at risk of poor prognosis in the need of dedicated treatments.

Gene-gene interactions among coding genes of iron-homeostasis proteins and APOE-alleles in cognitive impairment diseases

Cognitive impairments of different aetiology share alterations in iron and lipid homeostasis with mutual relationships. Since iron and cholesterol accumulation impact on neurodegenerative disease, the associated gene variants are appealing candidate targets for risk and disease progression assessment. In this light, we explored the role of common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the main iron homeostasis genes and in the main lipoprotein transporter gene (APOE) in a cohort of 765 patients with dementia of different origin: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) n = 276; vascular dementia (VaD), n = 255; mild cognitive impairment (MCI), n = 234; and in normal controls (n = 1086). In details, four genes of iron homeostasis (Hemochromatosis (HFE: C282Y, H63D), Ferroportin (FPN1: -8CG), Hepcidin (HAMP: -582AG), Transferrin (TF: P570S)), and the three major alleles of APOE (APOE2, APOE3, APOE4) were analyzed to explore causative interactions and synergies. In single analysis, HFE 282Y allele yielded a 3-fold risk reduction in the whole cohort of patients (P<0.0001), confirmed in AD and VaD, reaching a 5-fold risk reduction in MCI (P = 0.0019). The other iron SNPs slightly associated with risk reduction whereas APOE4 allele resulted in increased risk, reaching more than 7-fold increased risk in AD homozygotes (P = 0.001), confirmed to a lower extent in VaD and MCI (P = 0.038 and P = 0.013 respectively) as well as in the whole group (P<0.0001). Comparisons of Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) among AD showed appreciable lowering in APOE4 carriers (P = 0.038), confirmed in the whole cohort of patients (P = 0.018). In interaction analysis, the HFE 282Y allele completely extinguished the APOE4 allele associated risk. Conversely, the coexistence in patients of a substantial number of iron SNPs accrued the APOE4 detrimental effect on MMSE. Overall, the analysis highlighted how a specific iron-allele burden, defined as different combinations of iron gene variants, might have different effects on cognitive impairment and might modulate the effects of established genetic risk factors such as APOE4. Our results suggest that established genetic risk factors might be affected by specific genetic backgrounds, making patients differently suited to manage iron accumulation adding new genetic insights in neurodegeneration. The recently recognized interconnections between iron and lipids, suggest that these pathways might share more than expected. We therefore extended to additional iron gene variants the newly proposed influencing mechanisms that HFE gene has on cholesterol metabolism. Our results have a strong translational potential promoting new pharmacogenetics studies on therapeutic target identification aimed at optimally tuning brain iron levels.

Redox metals homeostasis in multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a review

The effect of redox metals such as iron and copper on multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis has been intensively studied. However, the origin of these disorders remains uncertain. This review article critically describes the physiology of redox metals that produce oxidative stress, which in turn leads to cascades of immunomodulatory alteration of neurons in multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Iron and copper overload has been well established in motor neurons of these diseases’ lesions. On the other hand, the role of other metals like cadmium participating indirectly in the redox cascade of neurobiological mechanism is less studied. In the second part of this review, we focus on this less conspicuous correlation between cadmium as an inactive-redox metal and multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, providing novel treatment modalities and approaches as future prospects.

Factor XIII Subunit A in the Skin: Applications in Diagnosis and Treatment

The role of factor XIII subunit A (FXIII-A) is not restricted to hemostasis. FXIII-A is also present intracellularly in several human cells and serves as a diagnostic marker in a wide range of dermatological diseases from inflammatory conditions to malignancies. In this review, we provide a guide on the still controversial interpretation of dermal cell types expressing FXIII-A and assess the previously described mechanisms behind their accumulation under physiological and pathological conditions of the human skin. We summarize the intracellular functions of FXIII-A as well as its possible sources in the extracellular space of the dermis with a focus on its relevance to skin homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. Finally, the potential role of FXIII-A in wound healing, as a field with long-term therapeutic implications, is also discussed.

The Active Metabolite of Warfarin (3'-Hydroxywarfarin) and Correlation with INR, Warfarin and Drug Weekly Dosage in Patients under Oral Anticoagulant Therapy: A Pharmacogenetics Study

Objectives

Warfarin oral anticoagulant therapy (OAT) requires regular and frequent drug adjustment monitored by INR. Interindividual variability, drug and diet interferences, and genetics (VKORC1 and CYP2C9) make the maintenance/reaching of stable INR a not so easy task. HPLC assessment of warfarin/enantiomers was suggested as a valid monitoring-tool along with INR, but definite results are still lacking. We evaluated possible correlations between INR, warfarin/3’-hydroxywarfarin, and drug weekly dosage aimed at searching novel alternatives to OAT monitoring. VKORC1/CYP2C9 pharmacogenetics investigation was performed to account for the known influence on warfarin homeostasis.

Methods

133 OAT patients were recruited and assessed for warfarin/3’-hydroxywarfarin serum levels (HPLC), INR, and VKORC1 and CYP2C9 genotypes. A subgroup of 52 patients were monitored in detail (5 consecutive controls; c0-c4) till the target INR was reached. Correlation analyses were performed in both groups

Results

In the whole OAT group both warfarin and 3’-hydroxywarfarin correlate with INR at comparable degree (r² = 0.0388 and 0.0362 respectively). Conversely, warfarin weekly dosage better correlates with warfarin than with 3’-hydroxywarfarin (r² = 0.0975 and r² = 0.0381 respectively), but considering together warfarin plus 3’-hydroxywarfarin the correlation strongly increased (r² = 0.1114; p<0.0001). Interestingly, 3’-hydroxywarfarin reached a strong correlation at c4 respect to warfarin (r² = 0.2157 and r² = 0.0549; p = 0.0005 and p = 0.0944 respectively) seeming less affected by drug adjustments in the subgroup of 52 patients who started OAT. The multivariate analyses aimed at estimating the true contribution of 3’-hydroxywarfarin on INR value ascribed it the unique significant value (p = 0.0021) in spite of warfarin who lost association. The pharmacogenetics studies confirmed that patients carrying the VKORC1 variant-allele required lower warfarin maintenance dosage and that the combination of VKORC1 and CYP2C9 yielded a warfarin responsive index (WRI) inversely related to the number variant alleles

Conclusion

Our results overall suggest that 3’-hydroxywarfarin monitoring could be of great advantage in INR monitoring respect to classical warfarin assessment showing significant contribution also in multivariate analysis. Therefore, additional active metabolites should be recognized and investigated as novel useful indicators.

Autologous adipose-derived stem cells: Basic science, technique, and rationale for application in ulcer and wound healing

Objectives The present review represents a translational boundary between basic research and surgery, particularly focusing on the promising application of adipose-derived stem cells harvested intra-operatively during debridement of venous leg ulcers. Methods We reviewed 830 out of 5578 articles on MEDLINE starting from 1997 and sorted by the relevance option. Results The technique currently used for adipose-derived stem cells intra-operative harvesting is presented, including a safety evaluation on a cohort of 5089 revised patients who underwent plastic surgery and maxillo-facial surgical procedures. Complications were reported in 169 cases (3.3%). One hundred and forty-one (2.77%) patients were classified as having minor complications, specifically: nodularity/induration 93 (1.83%), dysesthesia 14 (0.26%), hematoma 12 (0.23%), superficial infection 11 (0.21%), pain 7 (0.13%), poor cosmesis 3 (0.06%), and abnormal breast secretion 1 (0.02%), while 28 patients (0.55%) were classified as having major complications, specifically: deep infection 22 (0.43%), sepsis 3 (0.06%), abdominal hematoma 2 (0.04%), and pneumothorax 1 (0.02%). Application of cell therapy in venous leg ulcer is currently used only for patients not responding to the standard treatment. The review shows the lack of randomized clinical trials for application of adipose-derived stem cells among treatments for venous leg ulcer. Finally, adipose-derived stem cells implantation at the wound site promotes a new tissue formation rich in vascular structures and remodeling collagen. Conclusion Adipose-derived stem cells strategy represents a great opportunity for the treatment of chronic wounds, due to the simplicity of the technique and the application of cell treatment in the operating room immediately following debridement. However, clinical studies and data from randomized trials are currently lacking.

Factor XIII-A dynamics in acute myocardial infarction: a novel prognostic biomarker?

After acute myocardial infarction (MI) the damaged heart has to be repaired. Factor XIII (FXIII) is considered a key molecule in promoting heart healing. FXIII deficiency was associated to cardiac rupture and anomalous remodelling in MI. During MI, FXIII contributes firstly to the intracoronary thrombus formation and shortly after to heal the myocardial lesion. To quantify the real contribution of FXIII in this process, and to explore its possible prognostic role, we monitored the FXIII-A subunit levels in 350 acute MI patients during the first six days (d0-d5) plus a control at 30-60 days (d30). A one-year follow-up was performed for all the patients. A transient drop in the FXIII-A mean level was noted in the whole cohort of patients (FXIII-Ad0 99.48 ± 30.5 vs FXIII-Ad5 76.51 ± 27.02; p< 0.0001). Interestingly, those who developed post-MI heart failure showed the highest drop (FXIII-Ad5 52.1 ± 25.2) and they already presented with low levels at recruitment. Similarly, those who died showed the same FXIII-A dynamic (FXIII-Ad5 54.0 ± 22.5). Conversely, patients who remained free of major adverse cardiac events, had lower consuming (FXIII-Ad0 103.6 ± 29.1 vs FXIII-Ad5 84.4 ± 24.5; p< 0.0001). Interestingly, the FXIII-A drop was independent from the amount of injury assessed by TnT and CKMB levels. The survival analysis ascribed an increased probability of early death or heart failure inversely related to FXIII-A quartiles (FXIII-A25th< 59.5 %; hazard ratio 4.25; 2.2-5.1; p< 0.0001). Different FXIII-A dynamics and levels could be utilised as early prognostic indicators during acute MI, revealing the individual potential to heal and suggesting tailored treatments to avoid heart failure or its extreme consequence.

Venous leg ulceration pathophysiology and evidence based treatment

Venous leg ulceration (VLU) is one of the most predominate medical disorders worldwide and in the western hemisphere it affects around 1.5% of the general population and up to 5% of the elderly population. Unfortunately, this trend will only increase given the growth of an aging population worldwide. Understanding its pathophysiology that begins with venous hemodynamic abnormalities and leads to inflammatory alterations with microcirculatory changes is critical to delivering effective curative therapy. As such, the main component to treatment is reversing the underlying venous hypertension and pro-inflammatory milieu using compression treatment along with various adjuvant therapies. Given its impact, a comprehensive multi-pronged approach to care, treatment and prevention is required to reverse the increasing trend that is observed worldwide.

Evidence for a genetic role in varicose veins and chronic venous insufficiency

There is a strong body of circumstantial evidence which implicates genetics in the aetiology and pathology of varicose veins and venous ulcer disease. The aim of this review is to consider the current knowledge of the genetic associations and the ways in which new genetic technologies may be applied to advancing our understanding of the cause and progression of these venous diseases. A number of publications have used a candidate gene approach to identify genes implicated in venous disease. Although these studies have opened up important new insights, there has been a general failure to replicate results in an independent cohort of patients. With our limited knowledge of the biological pathways involved in the pathogenesis of venous disease we are not in a strong position to formulate truly erudite a priori candidate gene hypothesis-directed studies. A genome-wide association study should therefore be considered to help further our understanding of the genetic basis of venous disease. Due to the large sample sizes required for discovery and validation, using the new generations of molecular technologies, it will be necessary to form collaborating groups in order to successfully advance the field of venous disease genetics.

Factor XIII: a coagulation factor with multiple plasmatic and cellular functions

Factor XIII (FXIII) is unique among clotting factors for a number of reasons: 1) it is a protransglutaminase, which becomes activated in the last stage of coagulation; 2) it works on an insoluble substrate; 3) its potentially active subunit is also present in the cytoplasm of platelets, monocytes, monocyte-derived macrophages, dendritic cells, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and osteocytes; and 4) in addition to its contribution to hemostasis, it has multiple extra- and intracellular functions. This review gives a general overview on the structure and activation of FXIII as well as on the biochemical function and downregulation of activated FXIII with emphasis on new developments in the last decade. New aspects of the traditional functions of FXIII, stabilization of fibrin clot, and protection of fibrin against fibrinolysis are summarized. The role of FXIII in maintaining pregnancy, its contribution to the wound healing process, and its proangiogenic function are reviewed in details. Special attention is given to new, less explored, but promising fields of FXIII research that include inhibition of vascular permeability, cardioprotection, and its role in cartilage and bone development. FXIII is also considered as an intracellular enzyme; a separate section is devoted to its intracellular activation, intracellular action, and involvement in platelet, monocyte/macrophage, and dendritic cell functions.

Review: Interplay of Iron Metallobiology, Metalloproteinases, and FXIII, and Role of Their Gene Variants in Venous Leg Ulcer

The iron metallobiology has long been suspected as a causal agent in venous leg ulcer (VLU) pathophysiology. However, it was demonstrated only recently that visible iron deposits cause lesions in only some individuals due to functional iron and related gene variants. In this article, the mechanism by which dysregulated iron cycle leads to local iron overload that could generate free radicals or activate a proteolytic hyperactivity on the part of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) or else downregulate tissue inhibitors of MMPs is reviewed. Also reviewed is the interplay of other vital factors such as coagulation factor XIII (FXIII), which influences tissue remodeling and angiogenesis, leading to impaired healing of the lesion, whether there exists altered interaction with MMPs or in presence of particular unfavorable single nucleotide polymorphisms.

Polymorphisms in MMP-9 and TIMP-2 in Chinese patients with varicose veins

BACKGROUND

Varicose veins (VVs), a common vascular disease, are functionally characterized by dilation and tortuosity and are widely prevalent in the adult population. The pathophysiology and molecular mechanism of VVs are still unclear. A genetic risk for VVs has been demonstrated, although no genetic variant pertaining to VVs has been identified. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their endogenous tissue inhibitors (TIMPs), which can prevent excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, greatly impact vascular remodeling and may play a vital role in patients with VVs. We evaluated a potential association between polymorphisms in the promoters of MMP-9 and TIMP-2 and the risk for VVs in the Chinese population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Genotyping of the promoter region polymorphisms -1562C/T in MMP-9 and -418G/C in TIMP-2 was performed with PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assays with a group of 60 patients with VVs and 60 healthy controls. Purified PCR products were sequenced.

RESULTS

A significant correlation was found between patients with VVs and controls at -1562C/T in MMP-9. The TIMP-2 gene polymorphism -418G/C was also associated with VVs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that polymorphisms in the promoter region of MMP-9 and TIMP-2 are associated with VVs in the Chinese population.

Transglutaminases and disease: lessons from genetically engineered mouse models and inherited disorders

The human transglutaminase (TG) family consists of a structural protein, protein 4.2, that lacks catalytic activity, and eight zymogens/enzymes, designated factor XIII-A (FXIII-A) and TG1-7, that catalyze three types of posttranslational modification reactions: transamidation, esterification, and hydrolysis. These reactions are essential for biological processes such as blood coagulation, skin barrier formation, and extracellular matrix assembly but can also contribute to the pathophysiology of various inflammatory, autoimmune, and degenerative conditions. Some members of the TG family, for example, TG2, can participate in biological processes through actions unrelated to transamidase catalytic activity. We present here a comprehensive review of recent insights into the physiology and pathophysiology of TG family members that have come from studies of genetically engineered mouse models and/or inherited disorders. The review focuses on FXIII-A, TG1, TG2, TG5, and protein 4.2, as mice deficient in TG3, TG4, TG6, or TG7 have not yet been reported, nor have mutations in these proteins been linked to human disease.

Mechanisms of varicose vein formation: valve dysfunction and wall dilation

Varicose veins are a common venous disease of the lower extremity. Although the mechanisms and determinants in the development of varicosities are not clearly defined, recent clinical studies and basic science research have cast some light on possible mechanisms of the disease. In varicose veins, there are reflux and incompetent valves as well as vein wall dilation. Primary structural changes in the valves may make them ‘leaky’, with progressive reflux causing secondary changes in the vein wall. Alternatively, or concurrently, the valves may become incompetent secondary to structural abnormalities and focal dilation in vein wall segments near the valve junctions, and the reflux ensues as an epiphenomenon. The increase in venous pressure causes structural and functional changes in the vein wall that leads to further venous dilation. Increase in vein wall tension augments the expression/activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which induces degradation of the extracellular matrix proteins and affect the structural integrity of the vein wall. Recent evidence also suggests an effect of MMPs on the endothelium and smooth muscle components of the vein wall and thereby causing changes in the venous constriction/relaxation properties. Endothelial cell injury also triggers leukocyte infiltration, activation and inflammation, which lead to further vein wall damage. Thus, vein wall dilation appears to precede valve dysfunction, and the MMP activation and superimposed inflammation and fibrosis would then lead to chronic and progressive venous insufficiency and varicose vein formation.

Factor XIIIA-V34L and factor XIIIB-H95R gene variants: effects on survival in myocardial infarction patients

It has been demonstrated recently that coagulation factor XIII (FXIII) plays an extraordinary role in myocardial healing after infarction, improving survival in a mouse model. Common FXIII gene variants (i.e. FXIIIA-V34L and FXIIIB-H95R) significantly influence the molecular activity. To evaluate whether there is a relationship between the two FXIII gene variants and survival in patients after myocardial infarction (MI), V34L and H95R were PCR-genotyped in a cohort of 560 MI cases and follow-up was monitored. Cases with ST-segment elevation MI (STEMI) were 416 (74.3%) and 374 of these were treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) (89.9%). The remaining 144 patients showed non-ST-segment elevation MI (NSTEMI) at enrollment. The combined endpoint was the occurrence of death, re-infarction, and heart failure. Kaplan-Meier analysis at one year yielded an overall rate for adverse events of 24.5% with a lower incidence in the L34-carriers (28.8% vs 17.1%; log-rank, P = 0.00025), similar to that of the 416 STEMI (23.8%) being (28.0% and 16.9%; VV34- and L34-carriers respectively; log-rank, P = 0.001). Primary PCI-group had a slight lower incidence (22.9%) of adverse events (26.8% and 17.1%; VV34- and L34-carriers respectively; log-rank, P = 0.009). During hospitalization, 506 patients received PCI (374 primary PCI and 132 elective PCI). Significance was conserved also in the overall PCI-group (28.6% and 17.8%; VV34- and L34-carriers respectively; log-rank, P = 0.001). Similar findings were observed at 30 days follow-up. Cases carrying both FXIII variants had improved survival rate (log-rank, P = 0.019). On the other hand, minor bleeding complications were found increased in L34-carriers (P = 0.0001) whereas major bleeding complications were not. Finally, more direct evidence on the role of FXIII molecule on survival might come from the fact that despite significant FXIII antigen reductions observed in cases after MI, regardless the FXIII genotype considered, L34-carriers kept almost normal FXIII activity (VV34- vs L34-carriers; P < 0.001). We conclude that FXIII L34-allele improves survival after MI in all the groups analyzed, possibly through its higher activity associated with assumable positive effects on myocardial healing and recovered functions. Genetically determined higher FXIII activity might influence post-MI outcome. This paves the way for using FXIII molecules to improve myocardial healing, recovery of functions, and survival after infarction.