Comparison of conservative and operative treatment for blunt carotid injuries: analysis of the National Trauma Data Bank

Pediatric Carotid Injury after Blunt Trauma and the Necessity of CT and CTA-A Narrative Literature Review

Background: Blunt carotid injury (BCI) in pediatric trauma is quite rare. Due to the low number of cases, only a few reports and studies have been conducted on this topic. This review will discuss how frequent BCI/blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) on pediatric patients after blunt trauma is, what routine diagnostics looks like, if a computed tomography (CT)/computed tomography angiography (CTA) scan on pediatric patients after blunt trauma is always necessary and if there are any negative health effects. Methods: This narrative literature review includes reviews, systematic reviews, case reports and original studies in the English language between 1999 and 2020 that deal with pediatric blunt trauma and the diagnostics of BCI and BCVI. Furthermore, publications on the risk of radiation exposure for children were included in this study. For literature research, Medline (PubMed) and the Cochrane library were used. Results: Pediatric BCI/BCVI shows an overall incidence between 0.03 and 0.5% of confirmed BCI/BCVI cases due to pediatric blunt trauma. In total, 1.1-3.5% of pediatric blunt trauma patients underwent CTA to detect BCI/BCVI. Only 0.17-1.2% of all CTA scans show a positive diagnosis for BCI/BCVI. In children, the median volume CT dose index on a non-contrast head CT is 33 milligrays (mGy), whereas a computed tomography angiography needs at least 138 mGy. A cumulative dose of about 50 mGy almost triples the risk of leukemia, and a cumulative dose of about 60 mGy triples the risk of brain cancer. Conclusions: Given that a BCI/BCVI could have extensive neurological consequences for children, it is necessary to evaluate routine pediatric diagnostics after blunt trauma. CT and CTA are mostly used in routine BCI/BCVI diagnostics. However, since radiation exposure in children should be as low as reasonably achievable, it should be asked if other diagnostic methods could be used to identify risk groups. Trauma guidelines and clinical scores like the McGovern score are established BCI/BCVI screening options, as well as duplex ultrasound.

Interdisciplinary Successful Revascularization of Traumatic Occlusion of the Right Common Carotid Artery

Blunt carotid artery injury (BCI) poses a rare yet severe threat following vascular trauma, often leading to significant morbidity and mortality. We present a case of a 33-year-old male who suffered complete thrombotic occlusion of the right common carotid artery (CCA) following a workplace accident. Clinical evaluation revealed profound neurological deficits, prompting multidisciplinary surgical intervention guided by the Denver criteria (Grade I - disruption inside the vessel that results in a narrowing of the lumen by less than 25%; Grade II - dissection or intramural hematoma causing greater than 25% stenosis; Grade III - comprises pseudoaneurysm formation; Grade IV - causes total vessel occlusion; Grade V - describes vessel transection with extravasation). Surgical exploration unveiled extensive arterial damage, necessitating thrombectomy, primary repair, and double-layered patch angioplasty using an autologous saphenous vein. Postoperative recovery was uneventful, with the restoration of pulsatile blood flow confirmed by Doppler ultrasound. Three-month follow-up demonstrated patent arterial reconstruction and improved cerebral perfusion, despite the persistent neurological deficits. Our case underscores the challenges in diagnosing and managing BCI, advocating for a tailored approach based on injury severity and neurological status. While conservative management remains standard, surgical intervention offers a viable option in select cases, particularly those with complete vessel occlusion and neurological compromise. Long-term surveillance is imperative to assess the durability of arterial reconstruction and monitor for recurrent thromboembolic events. Further research is warranted to refine management algorithms and elucidate optimal treatment strategies in this rare but critical vascular pathology.

Brazilian guidelines on diagnosis and management of traumatic vascular injuries

Trauma is a leading cause of death, permanent disability, and health care cost worldwide. The young and economically active are the most affected population. Exsanguination due to noncompressible torso hemorrhage is one of the most frequent causes of early death, posing a significant challenge to trauma and vascular surgeons. The possibility of limb loss due to vascular injuries must also be considered. In recent decades, the approach to vascular injuries has been significantly modified. Angiotomography has become the standard method for diagnosis, endovascular techniques are currently incorporated in treatment, and damage control, such as temporary shunts, is now the preferred approach for the patients sustaining physiological derangement. Despite the importance of this topic, few papers in the Brazilian literature have offered guidelines on vascular trauma. The Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery has developed Projetos Diretrizes (Guideline Projects), which includes this publication on vascular trauma. Since treating trauma patients is a multidisciplinary effort, the Brazilian Trauma Society (SBAIT) was invited to participate in this project. Members of both societies reviewed the literature on vascular trauma management and together wrote these guidelines on vascular injuries of neck, thorax, abdomen, and extremities.

Multi-Center Validation of the McGovern Pediatric Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury Screening Score

Blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) is defined as blunt trauma to the head and neck leading to damage to the vertebral and/or carotid arteries; debate exists regarding which children are considered at high risk for BCVI and in need of angiographic/vessel imaging. We previously proposed a screening tool, the McGovern score, to identify pediatric trauma patients at high risk for BCVI, and we aim to validate the McGovern score by pooling data from multiple pediatric trauma centers. This is a multi-center, hospital-based, cohort study from all prospectively registered pediatric (<16 years of age) trauma patients who presented to the emergency department (ED) between 2003 and 2017 at six Level 1 pediatric trauma centers. The registry was retrospectively queried for patients who received a computed tomography angiogram (CTA) as a screening method for BCVI. Age, length of follow-up, mechanism of injury (MOI), arrival Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, and focal neurological deficit were recorded. Radiological variables queried were the presence of a carotid canal fracture, petrous temporal bone fracture, and CT presence of infarction. Patients with BCVI were queried for mode of treatment, type of intracranial injury, artery damaged, and BCVI injury grade. The McGovern score was calculated for all patients who underwent CTA across all data groups. A total of 1012 patients underwent CTA; 72 of these patients were found to have BCVI, 51 of which were in the validation cohort. Across all data groups, the McGovern score has a >80% sensitivity (SN) and >98% negative predictive value (NPV). The McGovern score for pediatric BCVI is an effective, generalizable screening tool.

Department of Defense Trauma Registry Infectious Disease Module Impact on Clinical Practice

BACKGROUND

The Joint Trauma System (JTS) is a DoD Center of Excellence for Military Health System trauma care delivery and the DoD's reference body for trauma care in accordance with National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017. Through the JTS, evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) have been developed and subsequently refined to standardize and improve combat casualty care. Data are amassed through a single, centralized DoD Trauma Registry to support process improvement measures with specialty modules established as the registry evolved. Herein, we review the implementation of the JTS DoD Trauma Registry specialty Infectious Disease Module and the development of infection-related CPGs and summarize published findings on the subsequent impact of the Infectious Disease Module on combat casualty care clinical practice and guidelines.

METHODS

The DoD Trauma Registry Infectious Disease Module was developed in collaboration with the Infectious Disease Clinical Research Program (IDCRP) Trauma Infectious Disease Outcomes Study (TIDOS). Infection-related information (e.g., syndromes, antibiotic management, and microbiology) were collected from military personnel wounded during deployment June 1, 2009 through December 31, 2014 and medevac'd to Landstuhl Regional Medical Center in Germany before transitioning to participating military hospitals in the USA.

RESULTS

To support process improvements and reduce variation in practice patterns, data collected through the Infectious Disease Module have been utilized in TIDOS analyses focused on assessing compliance with post-trauma antibiotic prophylaxis recommendations detailed in JTS CPGs. Analyses examined compliance over three time periods: 6 months, one-year, and 5 years. The five-year analysis demonstrated significantly improved adherence to recommendations following the dissemination of the 2011 JTS CPG, particularly with open fractures (34% compliance compared to 73% in 2013-2014). Due to conflicting recommendations regarding use of expanded Gram-negative coverage with open fractures, infectious outcomes among patients with open fractures who received cefazolin or expanded Gram-negative coverage (cefazolin plus fluoroquinolones and/or aminoglycosides) were also examined in a TIDOS analysis. The lack of a difference in the proportion of osteomyelitis (8% in both groups) and the significantly greater recovery of Gram-negative organisms resistant to aminoglycosides or fluoroquinolones among patients who received expanded Gram-negative coverage supported JTS recommendations regarding the use of cefazolin with open fractures. Following recognition of the outbreak of invasive fungal wound infections (IFIs) among blast casualties injured in Afghanistan, the ID Module was refined to capture data (e.g., fungal culture and histopathology findings, wound necrosis, and antifungal management) needed for the TIDOS team to lead the DoD outbreak investigation. These data captured through the Infectious Disease Module provided support for the development of a JTS CPG for the prevention and management of IFIs, which was later refined based on subsequent TIDOS IFI analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

To improve combat casualty care outcomes and mitigate high-consequence infections in future conflicts, particularly in the event of prolonged field care, expansion, refinement, and a mechanism for sustainability of the DoD Trauma Registry Infectious Disease Module is needed to include real-time surveillance of infectious disease trends and outcomes.

Characterizing Comorbid Cerebrovascular Insults Among Patients With TBI at a TBI Model Systems Rehabilitation Center

OBJECTIVE

Determine incidence and predictors of comorbid cerebrovascular injuries in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and whether it influences rehabilitation outcomes.

SETTING

Inpatient Rehabilitation Facility (IRF) brain injury unit participating in NIDILRR TBI Model Systems (TBIMS).

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 663 patients with moderate to severe TBI.

DESIGN

Observational study with prospective and retrospective data collection.

MAIN MEASURES

New traumatic cerebral artery injury (TCAI) lesions of head/neck and new cerebral infarcts (CIs) abstracted from neuroimaging reports and clinical notes.

RESULTS

The incidence of comorbid CI was 8%, among whom 19% also had TCAI identified. The incidence of TCAI increased over time from 2% before 2008 to 10% after, probably from greater screening. Both CI and TCAI were associated with longer acute care stay. Cerebral infarct was also associated with longer posttraumatic amnesia and lower rate of functional gains.

CONCLUSIONS

Using in-depth abstraction of imaging findings, the incidence of traumatic head/neck artery injuries, and CIs in patients with moderate to severe TBI were both higher than a recent TBIMS-wide study utilizing ICD coding. Cerebral infarct was associated with longer posttraumatic amnesia duration and slower functional gains. Further research is recommended on the outcome implications of concomitant cerebrovascular injury in patients with TBI.

Penetrating Injury to the Carotid Artery: Characterizing Presentation and Outcomes from the National Trauma Data Bank

BACKGROUND

Penetrating injury to the neck can be devastating because of the multiple vital structures in close proximity. In the event of injury to the carotid artery, there is a significantly increased likelihood of morbidity or mortality. The purpose of this study was to assess presenting characteristics associated with penetrating injury to the carotid artery and directly compare approaches to surgical management.

METHODS

Data from the National Trauma Data Bank from 2002-2016 were accessed to evaluate adult patients sustaining penetrating injury to the common or internal carotid artery. Management (operative versus nonoperative) and surgical approach (open versus endovascular) were evaluated based on presentation characteristics, and outcomes were compared after propensity score matching.

RESULTS

Three thousand three hundred ninety-one patients fitting inclusion criteria and surviving past the emergency department were included in analyses (nonoperative: 1,976 [58.3%] patients and operative: 1,415 [41.7%] patients). The operative group was further classified by intervention as open = 1,192 patients and endovascular: 154 patients. On presentation, the nonoperative group demonstrated significantly higher prevalence of coma (Glasgow Coma Scale ≤8: nonoperative = 49.3% versus operative = 40.8%, P < 0.001), severe overall injury burden (Injury Severity Score ≥25: nonoperative = 42.3% versus operative = 33.3%, P < 0.001), and severe head injury (Abbreviated Injury Score ≥ 3: nonoperative = 44.9% versus operative = 22.0%, P < 0.001). After propensity score matching, the nonoperative group demonstrated higher mortality (nonoperative = 28.9% versus operative = 18.5%, P < 0.001), and lower rates of stroke (nonoperative = 6.6% versus operative - = 10.5%, P < 0.001). There were no differences in outcomes relating to surgical approach.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that nonoperative patients often present with a more severe overall injury burden, particularly injury to the head, and not surprisingly, have higher rates of mortality. The lack of significant differences in outcomes relating to surgical approach indicates open versus endovascular invention should be individualized to the patient-for example, based on presenting characteristics and the location of the injury.

Pediatric blunt cerebrovascular injury: the McGovern screening score

OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to assess the incidence, diagnosis, and treatment of pediatric blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) at a busy Level 1 trauma center and to develop a tool for accurately predicting pediatric BCVI and the need for diagnostic testing. METHODS This is a retrospective cohort study of a prospectively collected database of pediatric patients who had sustained blunt trauma (patient age range 0-15 years) and were treated at a Level 1 trauma center between 2005 and 2015. Digital subtraction angiography, MR angiography, or CT angiography was used to confirm BCVI. Recently, the Utah score has emerged as a screening tool specifically targeted toward evaluating BCVI risk in the pediatric population. Using logistical regression and adding mechanism of injury as a logit, the McGovern score was able to use the Utah score as a starting point to create a more sensitive screening tool to identify which pediatric trauma patients should receive angiographic imaging due to a high risk for BCVI. RESULTS A total of 12,614 patients (mean age 6.6 years) were admitted with blunt trauma and prospectively registered in the trauma database. Of these, 460 (3.6%) patients underwent angiography after blunt trauma: 295 (64.1%), 107 (23.3%), 6 (1.3%), and 52 (11.3%) patients underwent CT angiography, MR angiography, digital subtraction angiography, and a combination of imaging modalities, respectively. The BCVI incidence (n = 21; 0.17%) was lower than that in a comparable adult group (p < 0.05). The mean patient was age 10.4 years with a mean follow-up of 7.5 months. Eleven patients (52.4%) were involved in a motor vehicle collision, with a mean Glasgow Coma Scale score of 8.6. There were 8 patients (38.1%) with carotid canal fracture, 6 patients (28.6%) with petrous bone fracture, and 2 patients (9.5%) with infarction on initial presentation. Eight patients (38.1%) were managed with observation alone. The Denver, modified Memphis, Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma (EAST), and Utah scores, which are the currently used screening tools for BCVI, misclassified 6 (28.6%), 6 (28.6%), 7 (33.3%), and 10 (47.6%) patients with BCVI, respectively, as "low risk" and not in need of subsequent angiographic imaging. By incorporating the mechanism of injury into the score, the McGovern score only misclassified 4 (19.0%) children, all of whom were managed conservatively with no treatment or aspirin. CONCLUSIONS With a low incidence of pediatric BCVI and a nonsurgical treatment paradigm, a more conservative approach than the Biffl scale should be adopted. The Denver, modified Memphis, EAST, and Utah scores did not accurately predict BCVI in our equally large cohort. The McGovern score is the first BCVI screening tool to incorporate the mechanism of injury into its screening criteria, thereby potentially allowing physicians to minimize unnecessary radiation and determine which high-risk patients are truly in need of angiographic imaging.

Contemporary Strategies in the Management of Civilian Neck Zone II Vascular Trauma

Neck trauma is the leading cause of death mainly in younger persons posing to surgeons the dilemma whether to proceed with reconstruction of vascular injuries either in the presence of coma or in severe neurological deficit. Vascular injuries in zone II predominate over the other injuries located in zones I/III of the neck. Conventional open repair of carotid injuries with primary closure or interposition grafting is always recommended due to the effective long-term results for penetrating injuries or for patients unfit for endovascular intervention. In cases of blunt trauma, anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy should be administered first in neurologically stable patients. In case of worsening of the neurological status of the patient despite adequate anticoagulation endovascular means should be considered in cases of appropriate anatomy of the arterial trauma. We provide an update on penetrating/blunt trauma in zone II of the neck, giving emphasis on the anticoagulant and endovascular treatment.

Dissection of the internal carotid artery and stroke after mandibular fractures: a case report and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

We present a report of a patient with blunt trauma and mandibular fractures who developed a significant cerebral infarction due to an initially unrecognized injury of her left internal carotid artery. We believe that increased knowledge of this association will facilitate early recognition and hence prevention of a devastating outcome.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 41-year-old ethnic Norwegian woman presented to our Emergency Room after a bicycle accident that had caused a direct blow to her chin. At admittance, her Glasgow Coma Scale was 15. Initial trauma computed tomography showed triple fractures of her mandible, but no further pathology. She was placed in our Intensive Care Unit awaiting open reduction of her mandibular fractures. During the following 9 hours, she showed recurrent episodes of confusion and a progressive right-sided hemiparesis. Repeated cerebral computed tomography revealed no further pathology compared to the initial scan. She had magnetic resonance angiography 17 hours after admittance, which showed dissection and thrombus formation in her left internal carotid artery, total occlusion of her left medial cerebral artery, and left middle cerebral artery infarction was detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Carotid artery dissection is a rare but life-threatening condition that can develop after trauma to the head and neck. There should be a high index of suspicion in patients with a mechanism of injury that places the internal carotid artery at risk because blunt vascular injury may show delayed onset with no initial symptoms of vascular damage. By implementing an algorithm for early detection and treatment of these injuries, serious brain damage may be avoided.

Blunt traumatic transection of the right common carotid artery

Background

Carotid injuries are infrequent following blunt traumatic injury but can have potentially devastating neurologic consequences. We present a case of a 31-year-old male with right common carotid transection after blunt trauma to the neck.

Case report

A 31-year-old male with no notable medical history presented as a trauma level one activation after riding his bicycle into an open car door causing a Zone II laceration of his right anterior neck. The patient was hemodynamically normal, had an intact airway and had no neurologic deficits on evaluation in the trauma bay. He underwent a computed tomography angiogram of his neck which revealed a focal dissection of the right common carotid artery causing a 70%–80% luminal narrowing suspicious for a grade II injury. The patient was taken to the operating room for exploration of his neck laceration. He was found to have a grade V injury with complete transection of the right common carotid artery through the intima and media with intact adventitia. The arterial injury was repaired with polytetrafluoroethylene interposition graft. Perioperatively, the patient was started on dual antiplatelet therapy. He recovered uneventfully without neurologic deficits.

Conclusion

Complete transection of the common carotid artery following blunt trauma is rarely reported. Based on a review of the literature regarding blunt carotid injuries, it is reasonable to repair such injuries with prosthetic graft followed by either systemic anticoagulation or dual antiplatelet therapy.

Clinical and radiographic outcomes following traumatic Grade 1 and 2 carotid artery injuries: a 10-year retrospective analysis from a Level I trauma center. The Parkland Carotid and Vertebral Artery Injury Survey

OBJECT

Proper screening, management, and follow-up of Grade 1 and 2 blunt carotid artery injuries (BCIs) remains controversial. These low-grade BCIs were analyzed to define their natural history and establish a rational management plan based on lesion progression and cerebral infarction.

METHODS

A retrospective review of a prospectively maintained database of all blunt traumatic carotid and vertebral artery injuries treated between August 2003 and April 2013 was performed and Grade 1 and 2 BCIs were identified. Grade 1 injuries are defined as a vessel lumen stenosis of less than 25%, and Grade 2 injuries are defined as a stenosis of the vessel lumen between 25% and 50%. Demographic information, radiographic imaging, number of imaging sessions performed per individual, length of radiographic follow-up, radiographic outcome at end of follow-up, treatment(s) provided, and documentation of ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack were recorded.

RESULTS

One hundred seventeen Grade 1 and 2 BCIs in 100 patients were identified and available for follow-up. The mean follow-up duration was 60 days. Final imaging of Grade 1 and 2 BCIs demonstrated that 64% of cases had resolved, 13% of cases were radiographically stable, and 9% were improved, whereas 14% radiographically worsened. Of the treatments received, 54% of cases were treated with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), 31% received no treatment, and 15% received various medications and treatments, including endovascular stenting. There was 1 cerebral infarction that was thought to be related to bilateral Grade 2 BCI, which developed soon after hospital admission.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of Grade 1 and 2 BCIs remained stable or improved at final follow-up. Despite a 14% rate of radiographic worsening in the Grade 1 and 2 BCIs cohort, there were no adverse clinical outcomes associated with these radiographic changes. The stroke rate was 1% in this low-grade BCIs cohort, which may be an overestimate. The use of ASA or other antiplatelet or anticoagulant medications in these low-grade BCIs did not appear to correlate with radiographic injury stability, nor with a decreased rate of cerebral infarction. Although these data suggest that these Grade 1 and 2 BCIs may require less intensive radiographic follow-up, future prospective studies are needed to make conclusive changes related to treatment and management.

Clinical and radiographic outcomes following traumatic Grade 3 and 4 carotid artery injuries: a 10-year retrospective analysis from a Level 1 trauma center. The Parkland Carotid and Vertebral Artery Injury Survey

OBJECT

Screening, management, and follow-up of Grade 3 and 4 blunt carotid artery injuries (BCAIs) remain controversial. These high-grade BCAIs were analyzed to define their natural history and establish a rational management plan based on lesion progression and cerebral infarction.

METHODS

A retrospective review of a prospectively maintained database of all blunt traumatic carotid and vertebral artery injuries from August 2003 to April 2013 was performed, and Grade 3 and 4 BCAIs were identified. The authors define Grade 3 injuries as stenosis of the vessel greater than 50%, or the development of a pseudoaneurysm, and Grade 4 injuries as complete vessel occlusion. Demographic information, imaging findings, number of images obtained per individual, length of radiographic follow-up examination, radiographic outcome at end of follow-up period, treatment(s), and documentation of ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) were recorded.

RESULTS

Fifty-three Grade 3 BCAIs in 44 patients and 5 Grade 4 BCAIs in 5 patients were identified and had available follow-up information. The mean follow-up duration for Grade 3 BCAIs was 113 days, and the mean follow-up for Grade 4 BCAIs was 78 days. Final imaging of Grade 3 BCAIs showed that 53% of cases were radiographically stable, 11% had resolved, and 11% were improved, whereas 25% had radiographically worsened. In terms of treatment, 75% of patients received aspirin (ASA) alone, 5% received various medications, and 2% received no treatment. Eighteen percent of the patients in the Grade 3 BCAI group underwent endovascular intervention, and in all of these cases, treatment with ASA was continued after the procedure. Final imaging of the Grade 4 BCAIs showed that 60% remained stable (with persistent occlusion), whereas the remaining arteries improved (with recanalization of the vessel). All patients in the Grade 4 BCAI follow-up group were treated with ASA, although in 1 patient treatment was transitioned to Coumadin. There were 3 cases of cerebral infarction that appeared to be related to Grade 3 BCAIs (7% of 44 patients in the Grade 3 group), and 1 case of stroke that appeared to be related to a Grade 4 BCAI. All identified cases of stroke developed soon after hospital admission.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the posttraumatic cerebral infarction rate may be overestimated, the results of this study suggest that the Grade 3 and 4 BCAIs carry the highest stroke risk of the blunt cerebrovascular injuries, and those infarctions were identified on or shortly after hospital admission. Despite a 40% recanalization rate in the Grade 4 BCAI group and an 89% rate of persistent pseudoaneurysm in the Grade 3 BCAI group, follow-up imaging showed progressive worsening without radiographic improvement in only a small number of patients, and these findings alone did not correlate with adverse clinical outcome. Follow-up protocols may require amending; however, further prospective studies are needed to make conclusive changes as they relate to management.

Clinical and radiological outcomes following traumatic Grade 3 and 4 vertebral artery injuries: a 10-year retrospective analysis from a Level I trauma center. The Parkland Carotid and Vertebral Artery Injury Survey

OBJECT

Grade 3 and 4 blunt vertebral artery (VA) injuries may carry a different natural course from that of lower-grade blunt VA injuries. Proper screening, management, and follow-up of these injuries remain controversial. Grade 3 and 4 blunt VA injuries were analyzed to define their natural history and establish a rational management plan based on lesion progression and cerebral infarction.

METHODS

A retrospective review of a prospectively maintained database of all blunt traumatic carotid and vertebral artery injuries from August 2003 to April 2013 was performed, and Grade 3 and 4 blunt VA injuries were identified. Grade 3 injuries were defined as stenosis of the vessel greater than 50% or the development of a pseudoaneurysm, and Grade 4 injuries were defined as complete vessel occlusion. Demographic information, radiographic imaging findings, number of imaging sessions performed per individual, length of radiographic follow-up, radiographic outcome at end of follow-up, treatment(s) provided, and documentation of ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack were recorded.

RESULTS

A total of 79 high-grade (Grade 3 and 4) blunt VA injuries in 67 patients were identified. Fifty-nine patients with 66 high-grade blunt VA injuries were available for follow-up. There were 17 patients with 23 Grade 3 injuries and 42 patients with 43 Grade 4 injuries. The mean follow-up duration was 58 days for Grade 3 and 67 days for Grade 4 blunt VA injuries. Repeat imaging of Grade 3 blunt VA injuries showed that 39% of injuries were radiographically stable, 43% resolved, and 13% improved, while 1 injury radiographically worsened. Repeat imaging of the Grade 4 blunt VA injuries showed that 65% of injuries were radiographically stable (persistent occlusion), 30% improved (recanalization of the vessel), and in 2 cases (5%) the injury resolved. All Grade 3 injuries that were treated were managed with aspirin or clopidogrel alone, as were the majority of Grade 4 injuries. There were 3 cerebral infarctions thought to be related to Grade 4 blunt VA injuries, which were likely present on admission. All 3 of these patients died at a mean of 13.7 days after hospital admission. No cerebral infarctions directly related to Grade 3 blunt VA injuries were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of high-grade blunt VA injuries remain stable or are improved at final follow-up. Despite a 4% rate of radiographic worsening in the Grade 3 blunt VA injury group and a 35% recanalization rate in the Grade 4 blunt VA injury group, there were no adverse clinical outcomes associated with these radiographic changes. No cerebral infarctions were noted in the Grade 3 group. A 7% stroke rate was identified in the Grade 4 blunt VA injury group; however, this was confined to the immediate postinjury period and was associated with 100% mortality. While these data suggest that these high-grade vertebral artery injuries may require less intensive radiographic follow-up, future prospective studies are needed to make conclusive changes related to treatment and management.

Management of carotid artery trauma

With increased awareness and liberal screening of trauma patients with identified risk factors, recent case series demonstrate improved early diagnosis of carotid artery trauma before they become problematio. There remains a need for unified screening criteria for both intracranial and extracranial carotid trauma. In the absence of contraindications, antithrombotic agents should be considered in blunt carotid artery injuries, as there is a significant risk of progression of vessel injury with observation alone. Despite CTA being used as a common screening modality, it appears to lack sufficient sensitivity. DSA remains to be the gold standard in screening. Endovascular techniques are becoming more widely accepted as the primary surgical modality in the treatment of blunt extracranial carotid injuries and penetrating/blunt intracranial carotid lessions. Nonetheless, open surgical approaches are still needed for the treatment of penetrating extracranial carotid injuries and in patients with unfavorable lesions for endovascular intervention.

Clinical and radiological outcomes following traumatic Grade 1 and 2 vertebral artery injuries: a 10-year retrospective analysis from a Level 1 trauma center

Object

Screening of blunt vertebral artery (VA) injuries has increased since research has shown that they occur at a higher incidence than originally reported. Grade 1 and 2 injuries are the most common form of blunt VA injury. Proper screening, management, and follow-up of these injuries remain controversial. In this report, imaging, progression, treatment, and outcomes of Grade 1 and 2 blunt VA injuries were analyzed to better define their natural history and to establish a rational management plan based upon their risk of progression and cerebral infarct.

Methods

A retrospective review of all blunt traumatic carotid artery and VA injuries from December 2003 to April 2013 was performed. For the purposes of this report, focus was given to Grade 1 and 2 VA injuries. Grade 1 injuries were defined as a vessel lumen stenosis of less than 25%, and Grade 2 injuries were defined as vessel lumen stenosis between 25% and 50%. Demographic information, radiological imaging, number of images performed per individual, length of radiological follow-up, radiological outcome at the end of follow-up, treatment provided, and documentation of stroke or transient ischemic attack were recorded.

Results

One hundred eighty-seven Grade 1 and 2 VA injuries in 143 patients were identified. Of these 143 patients, 120 with 152 Grade 1 or 2 blunt VA injuries were available for follow-up. The mean duration of follow-up was 40 days. Repeat imaging showed that 148 (97.4%) Grade 1 or 2 blunt VA injuries were stable, improved, or resolved on final follow-up imaging. Seventy-nine patients (66%) were treated with aspirin, whereas 35 patients (29%) received no treatment. The remaining patients were treated with other antiplatelet agents or anticoagulant medication. Neuroimaging demonstrated 2 cases (1.7%) with posterior circulation infarcts that were believed to be related to their blunt VA injuries, both of which occurred during the initial hospitalization and within the first 4 days after injury.

Conclusions

Although follow-up imaging showed progressive worsening without radiological improvement in only a small number of patients with low-grade blunt VA injuries, these findings did not correlate with adverse clinical outcome. The posttraumatic cerebral infarction rate of 1.7% may be overestimated, and the use of acetylsalicylic acid or other antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication did not correlate with radiological changes or rate of cerebral infarction. While these data suggest the possibility that these low-grade VA injuries may not require treatment or follow-up, future prospective studies are needed to make conclusive changes related to management.

Incidence and trends in the diagnosis of traumatic extracranial cerebrovascular injury in the nationwide inpatient sample database, 2003-2010

Patients with traumatic extracranial cerebrovascular injury (TCVI) comprise about 1% of all blunt trauma admissions according to numerous single-center studies. However, previous studies have used aggressive screening protocols; these studies may not reflect common practice and the overall incidence of TCVI. The annual incidence of the diagnosis of TCVI from 2003 to 2010 was estimated using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS). For comparison, a systematic review of previous studies of the incidence of the diagnosis of TCVI was conducted. The estimated total number of admissions with TCVI ranged from 1283 to 2652; these admissions represented 0.46-0.95% of all blunt trauma admissions. There was a significant increase in the incidence of TCVI during the study period. A total of 49 studies of TCVI reported incidences of diagnosis ranging from 0.03% to 4.8%. In conclusion, the annual nationwide incidence of the diagnosis of TCVI is increasing. Although NIS incidences of the diagnosis of TCVI are at the low end of the range of previous reports, the increasing incidence in the NIS data likely reflects increasing use of aggressive screening protocols.

Influence of the National Trauma Data Bank on the study of trauma outcomes: is it time to set research best practices to further enhance its impact?

BACKGROUND

Risk-adjusted analyses are critical in evaluating trauma outcomes. The National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB) is a statistically robust registry that allows such analyses; however, analytical techniques are not yet standardized. In this study, we examined peer-reviewed manuscripts published using NTDB data, with particular attention to characteristics strongly associated with trauma outcomes. Our objective was to determine if there are substantial variations in the methodology and quality of risk-adjusted analyses and therefore, whether development of best practices for risk-adjusted analyses is warranted.

STUDY DESIGN

A database of all studies using NTDB data published through December 2010 was created by searching PubMed and Embase. Studies with multivariate risk-adjusted analyses were examined for their central question, main outcomes measures, analytical techniques, covariates in adjusted analyses, and handling of missing data.

RESULTS

Of 286 NTDB publications, 122 performed a multivariable adjusted analysis. These studies focused on clinical outcomes (51 studies), public health policy or injury prevention (30), quality (16), disparities (15), trauma center designation (6), or scoring systems (4). Mortality was the main outcome in 98 of these studies. There were considerable differences in the covariates used for case adjustment. The 3 covariates most frequently controlled for were age (95%), Injury Severity Score (85%), and sex (78%). Up to 43% of studies did not control for the 5 basic covariates necessary to conduct a risk-adjusted analysis of trauma mortality. Less than 10% of studies used clustering to adjust for facility differences or imputation to handle missing data.

CONCLUSIONS

There is significant variability in how risk-adjusted analyses using data from the NTDB are performed. Best practices are needed to further improve the quality of research from the NTDB.

An update of the role of endovascular repair in blunt carotid artery trauma

Blunt carotid injury (BCAI) is an increasingly recognised entity in trauma patients. Without a prompt diagnosis and a proper treatment, they can result in devastating consequences with cerebral ischaemia rate of 40-80% and mortality rate of 25-60%. Several applied screening protocols and continuously improving diagnostic modalities have been developed to identify patients with BCAI. The appropriate treatment of BCAI still remains controversial and strictly individualised. Besides anti-thrombotic/anticoagulation therapy and surgical intervention, continuously evolving endovascular techniques emerge as an additional treatment option for patients with BCAI. We provide an update on blunt carotid trauma, emphasising the role of endovascular approaches.