A simple method for domestic animal identification in Argentina using PCR-RFLP analysis of cytochrome b gene

Development and validation of simultaneous identification of 26 mammalian and poultry species by a multiplex assay

A multiplex PCR assay was developed to simultaneously identify 22 mammalian species (alpaca, Asiatic black bear, Bactrian camel, brown rat, cat, cattle, common raccoon, dog, European rabbit, goat, horse, house mouse, human, Japanese badger, Japanese wild boar, masked palm civet, pig, raccoon dog, red fox, sheep, Siberian weasel, and sika deer) and four poultry species (chicken, domestic turkey, Japanese quail, and mallard), even from a biological sample containing a DNA mixture of multiple species. The assay was designed to identify species through multiplex PCR and capillary electrophoresis, with a combination of amplification of a partial region of the mitochondrial D-loop by universal primer sets and a partial region of the cytochrome b (cyt b) gene by species-specific primer sets. The assay was highly sensitive, with a detection limit of 100 copies of mitochondrial DNA. The assay's ability to identify species from complex DNA mixtures was demonstrated using an experimental sample consisting of 10 species. Efficacy, accuracy, and reliability of the assay were validated for use in forensic analysis with the guidelines of Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM). The multiplex PCR assay developed in this study enables cost-effective, highly sensitive, and simultaneous species identification without massively parallel sequencing (MPS) platforms. Thus, the technique described is straightforward and suitable for routine forensic investigations.

Who killed my dog? Use of forensic genetics to investigate an enigmatic case

Genetic testing of animal biological material has become a valuable tool in forensic investigations, and it is successfully used to identify unknown crime perpetrators, to unmask food frauds, or to clarify cases of animal attacks on humans or other animals. When DNA profiling is not possible due to inadequate amounts of nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) testing is the only viable alternative, as in the case of shed hair samples. In this case, a dog was allegedly killed by wild animals while being hosted in a boarding house. Extraneous hair fragments recovered from the dog’s mouth and paws were subjected to genetic analysis: the cytochrome b gene located on mtDNA was amplified and sequenced in order to determine the species responsible for the killing. The mtDNA analysis provided evidence that the dog was killed by other dogs, thus unmasking a false wild animal attack and putting the case in an entirely different perspective.

Current issues for mammalian species identification in forensic science: a review

Mammalian species identification is one of the important issues in forensic science. Determining the origins of non-human biological material found at crime scenes can increase the possibility of identifying the true culprit by narrowing down the range of suspects. Although many techniques based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have been developed, challenges remain to cost-effectively identify species from degraded samples containing a mixture of DNA from multiple species and to standardize procedures for mammalian species identification. This review evaluates the reliability and versatility of mtDNA-based techniques to reveal obstacles to the establishment of standard analytical methods, with a particular focus on DNA mixtures. When samples contain a mixture of DNA from multiple species, the interpretation of sequencing analysis results is difficult. Although DNA metabarcoding using next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies can overcome the DNA mixture problem, DNA metabarcoding is not suitable for the type of small-scale analysis routinely performed by local forensic laboratories, primarily because it is costly and time-consuming. By contrast, fluorescent multiplex PCR analysis enables cost-effective and simultaneous species identification from suboptimal samples, although the number of identifiable species is currently limited in comparison with sequencing techniques. The advantages and limitations of current techniques presented in this review indicate that multiplex PCR analysis will continue to be important for mammalian species identification in forensic casework analysis. Further developments in multiplex PCR analysis that enable the identification of an increased number of species will play a key step for standardization efforts among forensic laboratories.

Simultaneous identification of animal-derived components in meats using high-throughput sequencing in combination with a custom-built mitochondrial genome database

Currently, the inspection and supervision of animal ingredients relies primarily upon specific amplification-dependent methods, whose efficiency and accuracy are being seriously challenged by the increasing diversity and complexity of meat products. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) technology was employed to develop an alternative method to detect animal-derived ingredients in meat products. A custom-built database containing 2,354 complete mitochondrial genomic sequences from animals, an identification analysis pipeline based on short-sequence alignment, and a web-based server were built to facilitate this detection. The entire process, including DNA extraction, gene amplification, and sequencing, was established and optimized for both marker gene (part of the CYTB gene)-based detection and total DNA-based detection. Using simulated samples containing various levels of pig, cattle, sheep, chicken, rabbit, and mice ingredients, the detection capability and accuracy of this method were investigated. The results of this study indicated that the method is capable of detecting animal components in meats that are present at levels as low as 1%. Our method was then tested using 28 batches of real meat products such as raw meat slices, raw meat mince, cooked dried meat, cooked meat sausage, and other supermarket samples, with a traditional qPCR method as the control. The results demonstrated an accuracy of 97.65% for the qualitative detection method, which indicate that the developed method is reliable for the detection of animal components. The method is also effective for the identification of unknown food samples containing mixed animal components, which suggests a good future in application.

Molecular identification of biwa trout (Oncorhynchus masou rhodurus) using PCR-RFLP method

Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis was used to identify meat from biwa trout (Oncorhynchus masou rhodurus), amago trout (Oncorhynchus masou ishikawae), yamame trout (Oncorhynchus masou masou), and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). PCR amplification was conducted using primers flanking conserved regions of NADH dehydrogenase subunits 4 and 5 (ND4-ND5) (2848 bp) and ND1 (1091 bp) genes of mitochondrial DNA following restriction digestion with the enzyme HaeIII. Although the segments of ND4-ND5 and ND1 genes showed intraspecies variation, the generation of DNA fragments larger than 300 bp and 160 bp following cleavage by HaeIII of ND4-ND5 and ND1, respectively, was efficient to differentiate the four species. Furthermore, this method was successful in species identification even when using PCR-amplified products obtained from thermally processed biwa trout samples. This sensitive technique can be utilized to reveal commercial fraud, where biwa trout is adulterated with meat from cheaper counterparts.

Identification of a broad spectrum of mammalian and avian species using the short fragment of the mitochondrially encoded cytochrome b gene

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), especially the gene for cytochrome b (MT-CYB), has been found to be highly informative for species identification. In this study, we present the results of the analysis of a 127 bp long fragment of MT-CYB, amplified using universal primers, variable enough to be used for species identification and discrimination, even in highly degraded animal samples. The total number of analyzed species in this study was 30, including 17 mammalian and 13 bird species. Using a newly created primer pair, we successfully amplified and sequenced the target sequence in almost all tested species. The amplification was incomplete in just two species, and as a result, partial, but still variable sequences, were obtained. Using the target fragment we successfully identified all tested samples. Initial results suggested that the intraspecies genetic diversity of the target region, in all tested species, was low - from 0 to 4.72%. The interspecies genetic diversity of the target region, crucial for successful discrimination, showed relatively high diversity, ranging from 8.36% to 42.52%. Given its short length, the target region should be used for species determination, particularly in samples that are degraded or are low in DNA quantity.

Identification of mammalian species using the short and highly variable regions of mitochondrial DNA

The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) typing is useful for the species determination of degraded samples and the nucleotide diversity of target fragments across species is crucial for the discrimination. In this study, the short and highly polymorphic regions flanked by two conserved termini were sought by the sequence alignment of mtDNA across species and two target regions located at 12S rRNA gene were characterized. Two universal primer sets were developed that appear to be effective for a wide variety of mammalian species, even for domestic birds. The two target regions could be efficiently amplified using their universal primer sets on degraded samples and provide sufficient information for species determination. Therefore, the two short and highly variable target regions might provide a high discriminative capacity and should be suitable for the species determination of degraded samples.

DNA barcode through cytochrome b gene information of mtDNA in native chicken strains

This study was carried out to figure out the potentiality of a cytochrome b gene as a barcoding tool in discriminating native chicken strains and other Gallus gallus species. We performed PCR amplification using universal primer to amplify around 415 bp fragment of cytochrome b gene of mtDNA. The results revealed that all Saudi chicken strains were identical to each other but when compared with other species of Gallus the differences were exciting. The phylogenetic tree revealed that there were seven clusters represented for native strains and were clustered together especially in black strain and dark brown ones. The results have confirmed that using cytochrome b gene to discriminate between Saudi chicken strains and other species of G. gallus fowl was a very sufficient tool. Moreover, we can consider short fragment of cytochrome b gene of mtDNA as a universal DNA barcode region. It was a much more accurate and efficient tool to discriminate interspecies than intraspecies. We think it needs more studies to confirm this concept, and we have to apply that tool for many species of vertebrate and invertebrate as well.

Establishment of a molecular tool for blood meal identification in Malaysia

OBJECTIVE

To establish a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique based on cytochrome b (cytb) gene of mitochondria DNA (mtDNA) for blood meal identification.

METHODS

The PCR technique was established based on published information and validated using blood sample of laboratory animals of which their whole gene sequences are available in GenBank. PCR was next performed to compile gene sequences of different species of wild rodents. The primers used were complementary to the conserved region of the cytb gene of vertebrate's mtDNA. A total of 100 blood samples, both from laboratory animals and wild rodents were collected and analyzed. The obtained unknown sequences were compared with those in the GenBank database using BLAST program to identify the vertebrate animal species.

RESULTS

Gene sequences of 11 species of wild animals caught in 9 localities of Peninsular Malaysia were compiled using the established PCR. The animals involved were Rattus (rattus) tanezumi, Rattus tiomanicus, Leopoldamys sabanus, Tupaia glis, Tupaia minor, Niviventor cremoriventor, Rhinosciurus laticaudatus, Callosciurus caniseps, Sundamys muelleri, Rattus rajah and Maxomys whiteheadi. The BLAST results confirmed the host with exact or nearly exact matches (>89% identity). Ten new gene sequences have been deposited in GenBank database since September 2010.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that the PCR direct sequencing system using universal primer sets for vertebrate cytb gene is a promising technique for blood meal identification.

South American camelid illegal traffic detection by means of molecular markers

South American camelids comprise the wild species guanaco and vicuña and their respective domestic relatives llama and alpaca. The aim of the present study was to determine by DNA analysis to which of these species belong a herd of camelids confiscated from a llama breeder but alleged to be alpacas by the prosecution, and to evaluate the usefulness of mitochondrial and autosomal DNA markers to solve judicial cases involving camelid taxa. Cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase I mitochondrial genes and 7 STR were analyzed in 25 confiscated samples. Mitochondrial results were inconclusive because 18 of the sequestered samples presented haplotypes that corresponded to the guanaco haplogroup and the remaining seven belonged to a vicuña linage. Microsatellite data of casework samples and llama reference samples revealed different genetic profiles by the presence of private alleles at two microsatellites suggesting that the confiscated animals could be alpaca, or at least alpaca hybrids instead of pure llama.

A new strategy for the discrimination of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups in Han population

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup discrimination is interesting not only for phylogenetic and clinical but also for forensic studies. We discriminated the mtDNA haplogroups of 570 healthy unrelated Han people from Zhejiang Province, Southeast China, by comprehensive analysis mutations of the hypervariable segments-I sequence and diagnostic polymorphisms in mtDNA coding region using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), which was compared with the widely used PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. The results showed that in superhaplogroup M, haplogroup D was the most common haplotype within this assay to 24.6%, and in the other superhaplotype N, haplogroup B and F were the most common groups. Samples re-identified by PCR-RFLP showed the consistent results that were got with RT-PCR. In conclusion, the RT-PCR strategy appears to be an accurate, reproducible, and sensitive technique for the discrimination of mtDNA haplogroups, especially for mass screenings quickly and economically.

Mitochondrial DNA sequencing of cat hair: an informative forensic tool

Approximately 81.7 million cats are in 37.5 million U.S. households. Shed fur can be criminal evidence because of transfer to victims, suspects, and/or their belongings. To improve cat hairs as forensic evidence, the mtDNA control region from single hairs, with and without root tags, was sequenced. A dataset of a 402-bp control region segment from 174 random-bred cats representing four U.S. geographic areas was generated to determine the informativeness of the mtDNA region. Thirty-two mtDNA mitotypes were observed ranging in frequencies from 0.6-27%. Four common types occurred in all populations. Low heteroplasmy, 1.7%, was determined. Unique mitotypes were found in 18 individuals, 10.3% of the population studied. The calculated discrimination power implied that 8.3 of 10 randomly selected individuals can be excluded by this region. The genetic characteristics of the region and the generated dataset support the use of this cat mtDNA region in forensic applications.

DNA typing in wildlife crime: recent developments in species identification

Species identification has become a tool in the investigation of acts of alleged wildlife crimes. This review details the steps required in DNA testing in wildlife crime investigations and highlights recent developments where not only can individual species be identified within a mixture of species but multiple species can be identified simultaneously. 'What species is this?' is a question asked frequently in wildlife crime investigations. Depending on the material being examined, DNA analysis may offer the best opportunity to answer this question. Species testing requires the comparison of the DNA type from the unknown sample to DNA types on a database. The areas of DNA tested are on the mitochondria and include predominantly the cytochrome b gene and the cytochrome oxidase I gene. Standard analysis requires the sequencing of part of one of these genes and comparing the sequence to that held on a repository of DNA sequences such as the GenBank database. Much of the DNA sequence of either of these two genes is conserved with only parts being variable. A recent development is to target areas of those sequences that are specific to a species; this can increase the sensitivity of the test with no loss of specificity. The benefit of targeting species specific sequences is that within a mixture of two of more species, the individual species within the mixture can be identified. This identification would not be possible using standard sequencing. These new developments can lead to a greater number of samples being tested in alleged wildlife crimes.

Molecular identification of three Indian snake species using simple PCR-RFLP method

Three endangered Indian snake species, Python molurus, Naja naja, and Xenochrophis piscator are known to be significantly involved in illegal trade. Effective authentication of species is required to curb this illegal trade. In the absence of morphological features, molecular identification techniques hold promise to address the issue of species identification. We present an effective PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism method for easy identification of the three endangered snake species, Python molurus, Naja naja, and Xenochrophis piscator. A 431-bp amplicon from cytochrome b gene was amplified using novel snake-specific primers following restriction digestion with enzymes Mbo II and Fok I. The species-specific reference fragment patterns were obtained for the target species, which enabled successful identification of even highly degraded shed skin sample confirming the utility of the technique in case of poor-quality DNA. The assay could be effectively used for forensic authentication of three Indian snake species and would help strengthen conservation efforts.

DNA detective: a review of molecular approaches to wildlife forensics

Illegal trade of wildlife is growing internationally and is worth more than USD$20 billion per year. DNA technologies are well suited to detect and provide evidence for cases of illicit wildlife trade yet many of the methods have not been verified for forensic applications and the diverse range of methods employed can be confusing for forensic practitioners. In this review, we describe the various genetic techniques used to provide evidence for wildlife cases and thereby exhibit the diversity of forensic questions that can be addressed using currently available genetic technologies. We emphasise that the genetic technologies to provide evidence for wildlife cases are already available, but that the research underpinning their use in forensics is lacking. Finally we advocate and encourage greater collaboration of forensic scientists with conservation geneticists to develop research programs for phylogenetic, phylogeography and population genetics studies to jointly benefit conservation and management of traded species and to provide a scientific basis for the development of forensic methods for the regulation and policing of wildlife trade.

Using species-specific repeat and PCR-RFLP in typing of DNA derived from blood of human and animal species

Species determination of tissue specimens, including blood, is an important component of forensic analysis to distinguish human from animal remains. DNA markers based on a method of species-specific PCR and amplifying the 359-base pair (bp) fragment of the mitochondrially encoded cytochrome-b gene and then digestion with the TaqI restriction enzyme were developed for detection and discrimination of human, cattle, buffalo, horse, sheep, pig, dog, cat and chicken blood samples. The results reveal that PCR-amplification of the gene encoding the species-specific repeat (SSR) region generated 603 bp in cattle and buffalo, 221 bp in horse, 374 bp in sheep, <or=100 bp in pig, 808 bp in dog, 672 bp in cat and 50 bp in chicken. Restriction analysis of the amplified 359-bp portion of the cytochrome-b gene using the TaqI restriction enzyme results in species-specific restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) between buffalo, cattle and human. Two different bands were generated in buffalo (191 and 168 bp) and human (209 and 150 bp), with no digestion in cattle (359 bp). Cytochrome-b is a highly conserved region and consequently a good molecular marker for diagnostic studies. Therefore, the two complementary techniques, SSR-PCR and PCR-RFLP, could be used successfully as routine methods in forensics for sensitive, rapid, simple and inexpensive identification of the species in bloodstains.

Molecular identification of Indian crocodile species: PCR-RFLP method for forensic authentication*

South East Asian countries are known for illegal poaching and trade of crocodiles clandestinely, to be used in skin, medicinal, and cosmetic industries. Besides crocodiles being listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, India has its Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 for conservation of crocodile species. Hitherto, lack of any rapid and reliable technique for examinations of crocodile-based crime exhibits such as skin, bones, etc. has been a major problem for an effective promulgation of law on illegal trade. DNA-based identification of species using PCR-RFLP technique for an apt identification of all the three Indian crocodile species namely, Crocodylus porosus, Crocodylus palustris and Gavialis gangeticus is presented here. A 628 bp segment of cytochrome b gene was amplified using novel primers followed by restriction digestion with three enzymes i.e., HaeIII, MboI, and MwoI, separately and in combination. The technique has produced a species-specific pattern for identifying the three crocodile species individually, which fulfills the requirement for its forensic application. It is expected that the technique will prove handy in identification of all the three Indian crocodile species and strengthen conservation efforts.

Forensic species identification based on size variation of mitochondrial DNA hypervariable regions

In this study, two new systems for species identification were developed based on size variation of mitochondrial DNA hypervariable regions among animals: one was a conventional method using non-fluorescent primer sets and agarose gel electrophoresis and the other was an automatic method using fluorescent primer sets and capillary electrophoresis. DNA samples from 18 mammal, four birds, and 19 fish species were amplified using three primer sets specific for mammals, birds, and fishes, respectively. The differences in the sizes of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products, ranging from about 350 to 900 bp, permitted us to identify species. These systems were successfully applied to various specimens from several criminal cases. In unknown samples, which were different in size from reference DNA markers, sequencing of the PCR products and subsequent BLAST analysis helped to identify species. Furthermore, the sequence data provided us with information on individuals. Because these species identification methods are very simple, easy, rapid, and exact, they are useful in the field of forensic science.

An alternative method to isoenzyme profile for cell line identification and interspecies cross-contaminations: cytochrome b PCR-RLFP analysis

One of the major risks in cell culture laboratories is the misidentification and cross-contamination of cell lines. Several methods have been used to authenticate cell lines, including isoenzyme profiling, the test suggested by European Farmacopeia, which is performed at the Tissue Culture Centre in Brescia. However, this method displays several disadvantages, such as high variability and low reproducibility, and it is time consuming and requires high cell concentrations to be performed. Therefore, an alternative method has been developed to confirm the specie of origin of 27 different animal cell cultures. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) assay was optimized, based on the use of a pair of primers that anneal to a portion of the cytochrome b gene in all the species. The amplification product was digested with a panel of six restriction enzymes, and the pattern derived was resolved on 3% high-resolution agarose gel. For 23 species, this protocol produced a unique restriction pattern, and the origin of these animal cells resulted to be confirmed by this analysis. Furthermore, results indicate that cytochrome b PCR-RFLP was able to amplify target sequences using very low amounts of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Its sensitivity in detecting interspecies, cross-contamination was comparable to that of isoenzyme analysis (contaminating DNA should represent at least 10% of the total DNA). For 4 of the 27 species (sheep, dog, Guinea pig, and Rhesus monkey) the observed pattern, even if highly reproducible, showed additional bands; for these species, specific PCR was also performed.

A multiplex assay to identify 18 European mammal species from mixtures using the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene

A novel species-specific multiplex to identify 18 common European mammalian species (badger, cat, cow, dog, donkey, fox, goat, guinea pig, harvest mouse, hedgehog, horse, house mouse, human, pig, rabbit, rat, red deer and sheep), many of which are often associated with forensic investigations, has been developed. The assay is based on the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, which is commonly used in species identification and phylogeny studies. Areas of homology and variation were identified and were used to create universal and species-specific primers. The species-specific primers were designed such that they will only react with the species for which they were designed. Two primer sets were designed for each species making the test self-confirmatory. All primer sets produced the expected results. The multiplex was balanced at template concentration of 40 000 copies (approximately 1.36 pg). Validation was accomplished by analysing the same sample ten times to determine run variation and several samples for each species to determine between-sample variation. Twenty-eight additional mammalian species were reacted with the multiplex. The multiplex provides, for the first time, a definitive method for identification of species in a forensic context.

Study of animal species (human, dog and cat) identification using a multiplex single-base primer extension reaction in the cytochrome b gene

We developed a simple method for animal species identification of humans, dogs and cats, using a multiplex single-base primer extension reaction in the cytochrome b gene. Using this method, three points of a single nucleotide in the cytochrome b gene were examined in these species using primers of different lengths. Our method was found to be able to successfully identify humans (26 samples), dogs (21 samples) and cats (9 samples), and no differences were found among the samples from each animal species in this study. The amount of template DNA required was over 0.01 ng for humans and dogs, and over 0.1 ng for cats. The present method was able to identify animal species from hair shaft (2 cm) and forensic casework samples (blood stains and hair shafts), and is thus a useful tool for animal species (human, dog and cat) identification in forensic science.

Two universal primer sets for species identification among vertebrates

The aim of this study was to develop a simple method using universal primers for species identification based on direct PCR sequencing. Two primer sets were designed based on the conserved regions of the 12S and 16S rRNA loci detected by the comprehensive sequence comparison among 30 mammalian whole mitochondrial genomes. In humans, the expected sizes of PCR products of the 12S and 16S rRNAs were 215 and 244 bp, respectively. Both primer sets successfully amplified the expected PCR products from various kinds of vertebrates including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, and the sequenced segments contained sufficient nucleotide differences to identify each animal species. A case example of the identification of a piece of buried bone of unknown species is presented, and the species was identified as a pig by this method.

Molecular identification of lizard by RAPD & FINS of mitochondrial 16s rRNA gene

In the present study, we identified the structure-less skeleton suspected to be of house lizard present in jaggery, consumption of which caused mass food poisoning using, RAPD (Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA) with random primers and FINS (Forensically Informative Nucleotide Sequencing) with mitochondrial 16s rRNA gene. The NJ tree dendogram based on distance calculated from RAPD bands clearly identified the structure-less as Calotes versicolor (Garden Lizard). In FINS analysis of the mitochondrial 16s rRNA gene the NJ tree based on Kimura-2-parameter distance matrices clearly reveal that the unknown sample clustered with Agmidae family and closest to Calotes versicolor (Garden Lizard) with 100% bootstrap support, whereas all other species belong to Gekkonida family form a single distinct cluster including Hemidactylus fluviviridis (House Lizard). This is the first successful typing of mitochondrial 16s rRNA with FINS approach to identify the biological origin of a structure-less skeleton. Our analysis also sustained successful identification of unknown samples using RAPD method with optimized conditions in a laboratory setup with low resources.

Recent progress in mitochondrial DNA analysis

In this review, we describe the current state of knowledge of mitochondrial genetics of East Asian populations and its application to forensic science. Recent advances in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny have identified haplogroup-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the control region motifs of haplogroups. By analyzing haplogroup-specific SNPs, we can rapidly and accurately connect the mtDNA under study to the relevant haplogroup. Haplogroups are fairly continent- and/or region-specific; therefore, we can infer the ethnic background of that mtDNA. In addition, errors in hypervariable region sequences can be detected by means of haplogroup motif analysis.

Recommendations for animal DNA forensic and identity testing

Genetic analysis in animals has been used for many applications, such as kinship analysis, for determining the sire of an offspring when a female has been exposed to multiple males, determining parentage when an animal switches offspring with another dam, extended lineage reconstruction, estimating inbreeding, identification in breed registries, and speciation. It now also is being used increasingly to characterize animal materials in forensic cases. As such, it is important to operate under a set of minimum guidelines that assures that all service providers have a template to follow for quality practices. None have been delineated for animal genetic identity testing. Based on the model for human DNA forensic analyses, a basic discussion of the issues and guidelines is provided for animal testing to include analytical practices, data evaluation, nomenclature, allele designation, statistics, validation, proficiency testing, lineage markers, casework files, and reporting. These should provide a basis for professional societies and/or working groups to establish more formalized recommendations.