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Witkowska A, Gryn-Rynko A, Syrkiewicz P, Kitala-Tańska K, Majewski MS. Characterizations of White Mulberry, Sea-Buckthorn, Garlic, Lily of the Valley, Motherwort, and Hawthorn as Potential Candidates for Managing Cardiovascular Disease-In Vitro and Ex Vivo Animal Studies. Nutrients 2024; 16:1313. [PMID: 38732560 PMCID: PMC11085323 DOI: 10.3390/nu16091313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases are a broadly understood concept focusing on vascular and heart dysfunction. Lack of physical exercise, type 2 diabetes, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, thromboembolism, and kidney and lung diseases all contribute to the development of heart and blood vessel dysfunction. Although effective and important, traditional treatment with diuretics, statins, beta blockers, calcium inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, and anti-platelet drugs remains a second-line treatment after dietary interventions and lifestyle changes. Scientists worldwide are still looking for an herbal product that would be effective and free from side effects, either taken together with or before the standard pharmacological intervention. Such herbal-originated medication therapy may include Morus alba L. (white mulberry), Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson (sea-buckthorn), Allium sativum L. (garlic), Convallaria majalis L. (lily of the valley), Leonurus cardiaca L. (motherwort), and Crataegus spp. (hawthorn). Valuable herbal raw materials include leaves, fruits, seeds, and even thorns. This short review focuses on six herbs that can constitute an interesting and potential therapeutic option in the management of cardiovascular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Michał S. Majewski
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-082 Olsztyn, Poland; (A.W.); (A.G.-R.); (P.S.); (K.K.-T.)
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Claude SJ, Raman G, Park SJ. Comparative Analysis and Identification of Terpene Synthase Genes in Convallaria keiskei Leaf, Flower and Root Using RNA-Sequencing Profiling. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:2797. [PMID: 37570951 PMCID: PMC10421360 DOI: 10.3390/plants12152797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The 'Lilly of the Valley' species, Convallaria, is renowned for its fragrant white flowers and distinctive fresh and green floral scent, attributed to a rich composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis of this floral scent remain poorly understood due to a lack of transcriptomic data. In this study, we conducted the first comparative transcriptome analysis of C. keiskei, encompassing the leaf, flower, and root tissues. Our aim was to investigate the terpene synthase (TPS) genes and differential gene expression (DEG) patterns associated with essential oil biosynthesis. Through de novo assembly, we generated a substantial number of unigenes, with the highest count in the root (146,550), followed by the flower (116,434) and the leaf (72,044). Among the identified unigenes, we focused on fifteen putative ckTPS genes, which are involved in the synthesis of mono- and sesquiterpenes, the key aromatic compounds responsible for the essential oil biosynthesis in C. keiskei. The expression of these genes was validated using quantitative PCR analysis. Both DEG and qPCR analyses revealed the presence of ckTPS genes in the flower transcriptome, responsible for the synthesis of various compounds such as geraniol, germacrene, kaurene, linalool, nerolidol, trans-ocimene and valencene. The leaf transcriptome exhibited genes related to the biosynthesis of kaurene and trans-ocimene. In the root, the identified unigenes were associated with synthesizing kaurene, trans-ocimene and valencene. Both analyses indicated that the genes involved in mono- and sesquiterpene biosynthesis are more highly expressed in the flower compared to the leaf and root. This comprehensive study provides valuable resources for future investigations aiming to unravel the essential oil-biosynthesis-related genes in the Convallaria genus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Seon-Joo Park
- Department of Life Sciences, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
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Mehta N, Meng Y, Zare R, Kamenetsky-Goldstein R, Sattely E. A developmental gradient reveals biosynthetic pathways to eukaryotic toxins in monocot geophytes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.12.540595. [PMID: 37214939 PMCID: PMC10197729 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.12.540595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Numerous eukaryotic toxins that accumulate in geophytic plants are valuable in the clinic, yet their biosynthetic pathways have remained elusive. A lead example is the >150 Amaryllidaceae alkaloids (AmAs) including galantamine, an FDA-approved treatment for Alzheimer's disease. We show that while AmAs accumulate to high levels in many tissues in daffodils, biosynthesis is localized to nascent, growing tissue at the base of leaves. A similar trend is found for the production of steroidal alkaloids (e.g. cyclopamine) in corn lily. This model of active biosynthesis enabled elucidation of a complete set of biosynthetic genes for the production of AmAs. Taken together, our work sheds light on the developmental and enzymatic logic of diverse alkaloid biosynthesis in daffodil. More broadly, it suggests a paradigm for biosynthesis regulation in monocot geophytes where plants are protected from herbivory through active charging of newly formed cells with eukaryotic toxins that persist as aboveground tissue develops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niraj Mehta
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Yifan Meng
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Richard Zare
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | | | - Elizabeth Sattely
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- HHMI, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
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Dasgupta A, Bourgeois L. Convallatoxin, the active cardiac glycoside of lily of the valley, minimally affects the ADVIA Centaur digoxin assay. J Clin Lab Anal 2018; 32:e22583. [PMID: 29855084 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.22583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Lily of the valley is a poisonous plant due to the presence of the cardiac glycoside convallatoxin which is known to interfere with serum digoxin measurement using the LOCI digoxin assay and other digoxin assays. We evaluated potential interference of convallatoxin as well as extract of lily of the valley with the ADVIA Centaur digoxin assay by comparing results obtained using the LOCI digoxin assay. MATERIALS AND METHODS Aliquots of a drug-free serum pool and a digoxin serum pool were supplemented with nanograms to 1 μg quantities of convallatoxin or 1.0 and 2.5 μL of lily of the valley extract per milliliter of serum followed by measurement of digoxin concentrations using the LOCI and ADVIA Centaur digoxin assays. RESULTS Apparent digoxin concentrations were minimal using the ADVIA Centaur digoxin assay when aliquots of drug-free serum were supplemented with convallatoxin or extract of lily of the valley but apparent digoxin levels were very high using the LOCI digoxin assay. Moreover, minimal interference in serum digoxin measurement using the ADVIA Centaur digoxin assay was observed when aliquots of serum digoxin pool were further supplemented with lily of the valley extract. As expected, the LOCI digoxin assay showed significant interference of convallatoxin in serum digoxin measurement. CONCLUSIONS Significant interference of convallatoxin in serum digoxin measurement using the LOCI digoxin assay could be minimized using the ADVIA Centaur digoxin assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amitava Dasgupta
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas McGovern Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Laverne Bourgeois
- Laboratory Services, Memorial-Hermann Hospital at Texas Medical Center, Houston, TX, USA
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Gozalpour E, Greupink R, Bilos A, Verweij V, van den Heuvel JJMW, Masereeuw R, Russel FGM, Koenderink JB. Convallatoxin: a new P-glycoprotein substrate. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 744:18-27. [PMID: 25264938 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Digitalis-like compounds (DLCs), such as digoxin and digitoxin that are derived from digitalis species, are currently used to treat heart failure and atrial fibrillation, but have a narrow therapeutic index. Drug-drug interactions at the transporter level are frequent causes of DLCs toxicity. P-glycoprotein (P-gp, ABCB1) is the primary transporter of digoxin and its inhibitors influence pharmacokinetics and disposition of digoxin in the human body; however, the involvement of P-gp in the disposition of other DLCs is currently unknown. In present study, the transport of fourteen DLCs by human P-gp was studied using membrane vesicles originating from human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells overexpressing P-gp. DLCs were quantified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The Lily of the Valley toxin, convallatoxin, was identified as a P-gp substrate (Km: 1.1±0.2 mM) in the vesicular assay. Transport of convallatoxin by P-gp was confirmed in rat in vivo, in which co-administration with the P-gp inhibitor elacridar, resulted in increased concentrations in brain and kidney cortex. To address the interaction of convallatoxin with P-gp on a molecular level, the effect of nine alanine mutations was compared with the substrate N-methyl quinidine (NMQ). Phe343 appeared to be more important for transport of NMQ than convallatoxin, while Val982 was particularly relevant for convallatoxin transport. We identified convallatoxin as a new P-gp substrate and recognized Val982 as an important amino acid involved in its transport. These results contribute to a better understanding of the interaction of DLCs with P-gp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elnaz Gozalpour
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rick Greupink
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Albert Bilos
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Vivienne Verweij
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J M W van den Heuvel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rosalinde Masereeuw
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Frans G M Russel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan B Koenderink
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology 149, Radboud University Medical Centre, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Welsh KJ, Huang RSP, Actor JK, Dasgupta A. Rapid detection of the active cardiac glycoside convallatoxin of lily of the valley using LOCI digoxin assay. Am J Clin Pathol 2014; 142:307-12. [PMID: 25125619 DOI: 10.1309/ajcpcoxf0o5xxtkd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To explore the luminescent oxygen channeling technology-based digoxin immunoassay (LOCI digoxin assay) for rapid detection of lily of the valley extract and convallatoxin. The potential in vitro binding of convallatoxin with Digibind was also evaluated. METHODS Aliquots of a drug-free serum pool and a digoxin serum pool were supplemented with lily of the valley extract or convallatoxin, and then apparent digoxin concentrations were measured using the LOCI digoxin assay. Mice were administered lily of the valley extract or 50 μg of convallatoxin, and digoxin concentrations in serum specimens were measured 1 and 2 hours after gavage. Aliquots of a serum pool supplemented with convallatoxin or lily of the valley extract were further supplemented with various concentrations of Digibind and free apparent digoxin concentrations were measured. RESULTS Apparent digoxin concentrations were observed when aliquots of a drug-free serum pool were supplemented with convallatoxin or lily of the valley extract, and also with convallatoxin or herbal extract. Bidirectional interference of convallatoxin and lily of the valley extract with serum digoxin measurement using the LOCI assay was also observed. Digibind was capable of binding convallatoxin in vitro. CONCLUSIONS LOCI digoxin assay can be used for rapid detection of convallatoxin, and Digibind can bind convallatoxin in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry J. Welsh
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas-Houston Medical School, Houston
| | - Richard Sheng Poe Huang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas-Houston Medical School, Houston
| | - Jeffrey K. Actor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas-Houston Medical School, Houston
| | - Amitava Dasgupta
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas-Houston Medical School, Houston
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Shikov AN, Pozharitskaya ON, Makarov VG, Wagner H, Verpoorte R, Heinrich M. Medicinal plants of the Russian Pharmacopoeia; their history and applications. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2014; 154:481-536. [PMID: 24742754 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Due to the location of Russia between West and East, Russian phytotherapy has accumulated and adopted approaches that originated in European and Asian traditional medicine. Phytotherapy is an official and separate branch of medicine in Russia; thus, herbal medicinal preparations are considered official medicaments. The aim of the present review is to summarize and critically appraise data concerning plants used in Russian medicine. This review describes the history of herbal medicine in Russia, the current situation and the pharmacological effects of specific plants in the Russian Pharmacopoeia that are not included in the European Pharmacopoeia. MATERIALS AND METHODS Based on the State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR (11(th) edition), we selected plant species that have not yet been adopted in Western and Central Europe (e.g., selected for inclusion in the European Pharmacopoeia) and systematically searched the scientific literature for data using library catalogs, the online service E-library.ru, and databases such as Medline/Pubmed, Scopus, and the Web of Science regarding species, effectiveness, pharmacological effects, and safety. RESULTS The Russian Federation follows the State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR (11(th) edition), which contains 83 individual plant monographs. Fifty-one of these plants are also found in the European Pharmacopoeia and have been well studied, but 32 plants are found only in the Pharmacopoeia of the USSR. Many articles about these medicinal plants were never translated in English, and much of the information collected by Russian scientists has never been made available to the international community. Such knowledge can be applied in future studies aimed at a safe, evidence-based use of traditional Russian medicinal plants in European and global phytopharmacotherapy as well as for the discovery of novel leads for drug development. CONCLUSION The review highlights the therapeutic potential of these Russian phytopharmaceuticals but also highlights cases where concern has been raised about product safety and tolerability, which would aid in supporting their safe use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Shikov
- St-Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy, Kuz'molovskiy town, build 245, Vsevolozhskiy distr., Leningrad reg., 188663 Russia.
| | - Olga N Pozharitskaya
- St-Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy, Kuz'molovskiy town, build 245, Vsevolozhskiy distr., Leningrad reg., 188663 Russia
| | - Valery G Makarov
- St-Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy, Kuz'molovskiy town, build 245, Vsevolozhskiy distr., Leningrad reg., 188663 Russia
| | - Hildebert Wagner
- Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Biology, Ludwig Maximilian University, D - 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Rob Verpoorte
- Natural Products Laboratory, IBL, Leiden University, Sylvius Laboratory, PO Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, Sylviusweg 72
| | - Michael Heinrich
- Research Cluster Biodiversity and Medicines. Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, UCL School of Pharmacy, University of London.
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Cui HZ, Oh HC, Li X, Lee YJ, Cho KW, Kang DG, Lee HS. Ethanol extract of Lycopus lucidus elicits positive inotropic effect via activation of Ca2+ entry and Ca2+ release in beating rabbit atria. J Med Food 2014; 16:633-40. [PMID: 23875903 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2012.2487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lycopus lucidus Turcz has been widely used as a traditional Oriental medicine (TOM) in Korea and China and prescribed for the enhancement of heart function. However, the precise effects have yet to be defined. The purpose of the present study was, therefore, to address whether the ethanol extract of Lycopus lucidus Turcz (ELT) has a positive inotropic effect. ELT-induced changes in atrial mechanical dynamics (pulse pressure, dp/dt, and stroke volume), and cAMP efflux were measured in perfused beating rabbit atria. Three active components, rosmarinic acid, betulinic acid, and oleanolic acid were identified in ELT by high performance liquid chromatography analysis. ELT increased atrial dynamics in a concentration-dependent manner without changes in atrial cAMP levels and cAMP efflux. The ELT-induced positive inotropic effect was blocked by inhibition of the L-type Ca(2+) channels and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Inhibitors of β-adrenoceptors had no effect on the ELT-induced positive inotropic effect. The results suggest that ELT exerts a positive inotropic effect via activation of Ca(2+) entry through L-type Ca(2+) channel and Ca(2+) release from the SR in beating rabbit atria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhen Cui
- Professional Graduate School of Oriental Medicine and College of Oriental Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Jeonbuk, Korea
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Cui HZ, Kim HY, Kang DG, Lee HS. Ginseng-Aconite Decoction elicits a positive inotropic effect via the reverse mode Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in beating rabbit atria. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2013; 148:624-631. [PMID: 23702039 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ginseng-Aconite Decoction (GAD), a traditional oriental medicine composed of Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. (Araliaceae) and Aconitum carmichaeli Debx. (Ranunculaceae) has been used as treatment for cardiovascular diseases from Song Dynasty of China. The purpose of the present study was to elucidate the possible mechanisms of GAD-induced positive inotropic effect. MATERIAL AND METHODS GAD-induced changes in atrial dynamics and cAMP efflux were determined in isolated perfused beating rabbit atria. RESULTS GAD significantly increased atrial dynamics such as stroke volume, pulse pressure and augmented cAMP efflux in beating rabbit atria. The inotropic effect was significantly attenuated by pre-treatment with KB-R7943, a reverse mode Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger blocker. The GAD-induced increase in atrial dynamics was also markedly inhibited by staurosporine, a non-selective protein kinase inhibitor, and partly blocked by KT5720, a selective PKA inhibitor. The effect of GAD on atrial dynamics was not altered by pre-treatment with propranolol, a β-adrenergic receptor inhibitor, or diltiazem, an L-type Ca(2+)channel blocker. The phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) failed to modulate the GAD-induced increase in atrial dynamics, but markedly attenuated cAMP efflux in the beating atria. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the GAD-induced positive inotropic effect in beating rabbit atria may be attributable to stimulation of the reverse mode Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, while PKA activity would, at least in part, be participated in the course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhen Cui
- Professional Graduate School of Oriental Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Jeonbuk 570-749, Republic of Korea
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Cui HZ, Choi HR, Choi DH, Cho KW, Kang DG, Lee HS. Aqueous extract of Zanthoxylum schinifolium elicits contractile and secretory responses via beta1-adrenoceptor activation in beating rabbit atria. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2009; 126:300-307. [PMID: 19703535 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2009] [Revised: 07/31/2009] [Accepted: 08/15/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF STUDY Although Zanthoxylum schinifolium has long been used in the traditional oriental medicine, cardiac effects have not well been documented. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of aqueous extract of leaves and stems from Zanthoxylum schinifolium (AZS) on inotropic effect and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) secretion. MATERIALS AND METHODS The AZS-induced changes in atrial dynamics, cAMP efflux and atrial ANP secretion were determined in isolated perfused beating rabbit atria. RESULTS AZS increased atrial pulse pressure, stroke volume, and cAMP efflux concomitantly with inhibition of ANP secretion in a concentration-dependent manner. The AZS-induced increases in atrial dynamics and cAMP efflux, and decrease in ANP secretion were attenuated by pretreatment with propranolol and CGP 20712 but not ICI 118,551. Also, the AZS-induced changes in atrial dynamics and ANP secretion were attenuated by diltiazem and KT 5720. Diltiazem and KT 5720 had not significant effect on the AZS-induced increase in cAMP efflux. CONCLUSION These results suggest that AZS elicits a positive inotropic effect and decrease in ANP secretion via beta(1)-adrenoceptor-cAMP-Ca(2+) signaling in beating rabbit atria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhen Cui
- Professional Graduate School of Oriental Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Jeonbuk, 570-749, Republic of Korea
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