Transport of ginkgolides with different lipophilicities based on an hCMEC/D3 cell monolayer as a blood–brain barrier cell model

Anti-atherosclerotic effects and molecular targets of ginkgolide B from Ginkgo biloba

Bioactive compounds derived from herbal medicinal plants modulate various therapeutic targets and signaling pathways associated with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), the world's primary cause of death. Ginkgo biloba , a well-known traditional Chinese medicine with notable cardiovascular actions, has been used as a cardio- and cerebrovascular therapeutic drug and nutraceutical in Asian countries for centuries. Preclinical studies have shown that ginkgolide B, a bioactive component in Ginkgo biloba , can ameliorate atherosclerosis in cultured vascular cells and disease models. Of clinical relevance, several clinical trials are ongoing or being completed to examine the efficacy and safety of ginkgolide B-related drug preparations in the prevention of cerebrovascular diseases, such as ischemia stroke. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetic characteristics, and mechanisms of action of ginkgolide B in atherosclerosis prevention and therapy. We highlight new molecular targets of ginkgolide B, including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases (NADPH oxidase), lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1), sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), platelet-activating factor (PAF), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) and others. Finally, we provide an overview and discussion of the therapeutic potential of ginkgolide B and highlight the future perspective of developing ginkgolide B as an effective therapeutic agent for treating atherosclerosis.

The Potential of Ginkgo biloba as a Source of Biologically Active Compounds-A Review of the Recent Literature and Patents

Ginkgo biloba is a relict tree species showing high resistance to adverse biotic and abiotic environmental factors. Its fruits and leaves have high medicinal value due to the presence of flavonoids, terpene trilactones and phenolic compounds. However, ginkgo seeds contain toxic and allergenic alkylphenols. The publication revises the latest research results (mainly from 2018-2022) regarding the chemical composition of extracts obtained from this plant and provides information on the use of extracts or their selected ingredients in medicine and food production. A very important section of the publication is the part in which the results of the review of patents concerning the use of Ginkgo biloba and its selected ingredients in food production are presented. Despite the constantly growing number of studies on its toxicity and interactions with synthetic drugs, its health-promoting properties are the reason for the interest of scientists and motivation to create new food products.

Recovery of post-stroke cognitive and motor deficiencies by Shuxuening injection via regulating hippocampal BDNF-mediated Neurotrophin/Trk Signaling

A mild ischemic stroke may cause both debilitating locomotor and cognitive decline, for which the mechanism is not fully understood, and no therapies are currently available. In this study, a nonfatal stroke model was constructed in mice by a modified middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) procedure, allowing an extended recovery period up to 28 days. The extended MCAO model successfully mimicked phenotypes of a recovery phase post-stroke, including locomotor motor and cognitive deficiencies, which were effectively improved after Shuxuening injection (SXNI) treatment. Tissue slices staining showed that SXNI repaired brain injury and reduced neuronal apoptosis, especially in the hippocampus CA3 region. Transcriptomics sequencing study revealed 565 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the ischemic brain after SXNI treatment. Integrated network pharmacological analysis identified Neurotrophin/Trk Signaling was the most relevant pathway, which involves 15 key genes. Related DEGs were further validated by RT-PCR. Western-blot analysis showed that SXNI reversed the abnormal expression of BDNF, TrkB, Mek3 and Jnk1after stroke. ELISA found that SXNI increased brain level of p-Erk and Creb. At sub-brain level, the expression of BDNF and TrkB was decreased and GFAP was increased on the hippocampal CA3 region in the post-stroke recovery phase and this abnormality was improved by SXNI. In vitro experiments also found that oxygen glucose deprivation reduced the expression of BDNF and TrkB, which was reversed by SXNI. In summary, we conclude that SXNI facilitates the recovery of cognitive and locomotor dysfunction by modulating Neurotrophin/Trk Signaling in a mouse model for the recovery phase of post-ischemic stroke.

Assessment of Phytochemicals and Herbal Formula for the Treatment of Depression through Metabolomics

Depression is a widespread and persistent psychiatric disease. Due to various side effects and no curative treatments of conventional antidepressant drugs, botanical medicines have attracted considerable attention as a complementary and alternative approach. The pathogenesis of depression is quite complicated and unclear. Metabolomics is a promising new technique for the discovery of novel biomarkers for exploring the potential mechanisms of diverse diseases and assessing the therapeutic effects of drugs. In this article, we systematically reviewed the study of botanical medicine for the treatment of depression using metabolomics over a period from 2010 to 2019. Additionally, we summarized the potential biomarkers and metabolic pathways associated with herbal medicine treatment for depression. Through a comprehensive evaluation of herbal medicine as novel antidepressants and understanding of their pharmacomechanisms, a new perspective on expanding the application of botanical medicines for the treatment of depression is provided.

Development and Validation of Liquid Chromatography-mass Spectrometry Method for the Determination of Intracellular Concentration of Ginkgolide A, B, C, and Bilobalide in Transporter-Expressing Cells

Background:

Terpene lactones are major components of ginkgo biloba extract which are used in cardiovascular and degenerative diseases. To study the involvement of transporters in the transport/disposition of ginkgolides A, B, C, and bilobalide, a bioanalytical assay was developed by LCMS/ MS system for the quantitation of intracellular levels of terpene lactones in cells expressing organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2).

Methods:

The assay involved an optimized simple sample handling with methyl tert-butyl ether for liquid-liquid extraction and reconstitution in modified dissolution solution. Pretreatment of samples with 50 μM ascorbic acid and the addition of ascorbic acid and formic acid in dissolution solution significantly reduced matrix effect and stabilized the postpreparative samples. Separations were performed by Zobrax RRHD column (extend-C18 1.8μm, 3.0 x 100mm) and acetonitrile gradient elution. The analysis was carried out in the negative ion scan mode using multiple reaction monitoring.

Results:

The method was validated for linearity (concentration range of 20-5000nM), accuracy (±13.1%), precision (<11.0%), recovery (94.31–105.9%), matrix effect (93.8-111.0%) and stability. Finally, the method was applied in the determination of intracellular concentrations of ginkgolides A, B, C, and bilobalide in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK-mock) and MDCK-OCT2 cells in uptake study.

Conclusion:

The developed method was successfully validated. Results suggest that OCT2 is involved in the renal disposition of ginkgolide A, B, and bilobalide. This method would foster the study of transport mediated activity via the interaction of ginkgolides and bilobalide with cellular systems.

Ginkgo Flavonol Glycosides or Ginkgolides Tend to Differentially Protect Myocardial or Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via Regulation of TWEAK-Fn14 Signaling in Heart and Brain

Shuxuening injection (SXNI), one of the pharmaceutical preparations of Ginkgo biloba extract, has significant effects on both ischemic stroke and heart diseases from bench to bedside. Its major active ingredients are ginkgo flavonol glycosides (GFGs) and ginkgolides (GGs). We have previously reported that SXNI as a whole protected ischemic brain and heart, but the active ingredients and their contribution to the therapeutic effects remain unclear. Therefore, we combined experimental and network analysis approach to further explore the specific effects and underlying mechanisms of GFGs and GGs of SXNI on ischemia–reperfusion injury in mouse brain and heart. In the myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury (MIRI) model, pretreatment with GFGs at 2.5 ml/kg was superior to the same dose of GGs in improving cardiac function and coronary blood flow and reducing the levels of lactate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase in serum, with an effect similar to that achieved by SXNI. In contrast, pretreatment with GGs at 2.5 ml/kg reduced cerebral infarction area and cerebral edema similarly to that of SXNI but more significantly compared with GFGs in cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury (CIRI) model. Network pharmacology analysis of GFGs and GGs revealed that tumor necrosis factor-related weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK)–fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14) signaling pathway as an important common mechanism but with differential targets in MIRI and CIRI. In addition, immunohistochemistry and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays were performed to evaluate the regulatory roles of GFGs and GGs on the common TWEAK–Fn14 signaling pathway to protect the heart and brain. Experimental results confirmed that TWEAK ligand and Fn14 receptor were downregulated by GFGs to mitigate MIRI in the heart while upregulated by GGs to improve CIRI in the brain. In conclusion, our study showed that GFGs and GGs of SXNI tend to differentially protect brain and heart from ischemia–reperfusion injuries at least in part by regulating a common TWEAK–Fn14 signaling pathway.

Efficacy of ginkgo biloba extract as augmentation of venlafaxine in treating post-stroke depression

BACKGROUND

Post-stroke depression (PSD) is one of the most common psychiatric diseases afflicting stroke survivors. This study was conducted to assess the efficacy of ginkgo biloba extract as augmentation of venlafaxine in treating PSD.

METHODS

The included PSD patients were randomly assigned into the experiment group (receiving ginkgo biloba extract plus venlafaxine) and control group (receiving venlafaxine alone). The treatment was continued for eight weeks. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) and the Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS) were used to assess the depressive symptoms. The National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) was used to assess the neurological defect, and the Activities of Daily Living (ADL) was used to assess recovery of abilities of patients after stroke. Meanwhile, the levels of serum 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were measured before and after treatment. The dose of venlafaxine used and adverse events were also recorded.

RESULTS

Each group had 40 PSD patients. After treatment, the depressive symptoms, neurological defect and living function were significantly improved in both groups. But the patients receiving ginkgo biloba extract plus venlafaxine had the significantly lower average HDRS score (p=0.0008), SDS score (p<0.00001), NIHSS score (p=0.00001), and higher average ADL score (p=0.0005). Meanwhile, compared to the control group, patients in the experiment group had the significantly higher 5-HT (p<0.00001) level and BDNF level (p<0.00001), needed lower dose of venlafaxine (p=0.007), and experienced fewer adverse events.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrated that the ginkgo biloba extract was a good augmentation of venlafaxine in treating PSD and should be further investigated.

Nanoparticles based on disulfide-containing poly(β-amino ester) and zwitterionic fluorocarbon surfactant as a redox-responsive drug carrier for brain tumor treatment

Malignant brain tumors are often characterized by rapid growth, high invasiveness and poor prognosis. Current methods for brain tumor treatment are dramatically limited because of their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and enter the tumor cells. In this study, we prepared redox-responsive nanoparticles based on disulfide-containing poly(β-amino ester) (ssPBAE) and a zwitterionic fluorocarbon surfactant (Intechem-02) that has a carboxybetaine moiety in molecular structure, and preliminarily evaluated their potential as a drug carrier for brain tumor treatment. These nanoparticles, named as ssPBAEI, had a regular spherical shape and a small size below 50 nm with a relative narrow distribution. Doxorubicin (DOX), as a model chemotherapeutic drug, was efficiently encapsulated into ssPBAEI nanoparticles with a loading content of 25.4%. DOX-loaded ssPBAEI nanoparticles (ssPBAEI/DOX) showed significant redox-responsive in vitro release property and successfully carried DOX across a BBB model, monolayer of human brain capillary endothelial hCMEC/D3 cells. In human glioma LN229 cells, ssPBAEI/DOX nanoparticles were efficiently internalized and DOX was successfully released afterwards, thus significantly inhibited cell growth and induced cell apoptosis. In summary, this nanoparticle system based on ssPBAE and Intechem-02 showed a great potential as a drug carrier for brain tumor treatment.

Assessment of HBEC-5i endothelial cell line cultivated in astrocyte conditioned medium as a human blood-brain barrier model for ABC drug transport studies

Endothelial cells are main components of the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) and form a tight monolayer that regulates the passage of molecules, with the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters efflux pumps. We have developed a human in vitro model of HBEC-5i endothelial cells cultivated alone or with human astrocytes conditioned medium on insert. HBEC-5i cells showed a tight monolayer within 14 days, expressing ZO-1 and claudin 5, a low apparent permeability to small molecules, with a TEER stability during five days. The P-gp, BCRP, MRPs transporters were well expressed and functional. Accumulation and efflux ratio measurement with different ABC transporters substrates (Rhodamine 123, BCECF AM, Hoechst 33342) and inhibitors (verapamil, Ko143, probenecid and cyclosporin A) were conducted. At barrier level, the functionality of ABC transporters was three-fold enhanced in astrocyte conditioned medium. We validated our model by the transport of pharmacological substrates: caffeine, rivaroxaban, and methotrexate. The rivaroxaban and methotrexate were released with an efflux ratio >3 and were decreased by more than half with inhibitors. HBEC-5i model could be used as relevant tool in preclinical studies for assessing the permeability of therapeutic molecules to cross human BBB.

Ginkgo biloba extract and its diterpene ginkgolide constituents ameliorate the metabolic disturbances caused by recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in rat prefrontal cortex

INTRODUCTION

Although recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) is a widely used therapy in patients with acute ischemic stroke, rtPA-induced toxicity or its adverse effects have been reported in our previous studies. However, Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) may provide neuroprotective effects against rtPA-induced toxicity. Thus, in the present study, we investigated whether a single administration of rtPA caused neurotoxicity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of rats and determined whether GBE or its diterpene ginkgolide (DG) constituents were neuroprotective against any rtPA-induced toxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We randomly divided adult Sprague-Dawley rats into four groups that were intravenously administered saline, rtPA, rtPA+DG, or rtPA+GBE. The rats were sacrificed 24 hours later and the whole brain removed. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry metabolomic approach was used to detect molecular changes in the PFC among the groups. Multivariate statistical and pathway analyses were used to determine the relevant metabolites as well as their functions and pathways.

RESULTS

We found 32 metabolites differentially altered in the four groups that were primarily involved in neurotransmitter, amino acid, energy, lipid, and nucleotide metabolism. Our results indicated that a single rtPA administration caused metabolic disturbances in the PFC. Both GBE and DG effectively ameliorated these rtPA-induced disturbances, although DG better controlled the rtPA-induced glutamate and aspartate excitotoxicity and the activation of NMDA receptor.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide important novel mechanistic insights into the adverse effects of rtPA and offer directions for future exploration on the thrombolytic effects of rtPA combined with the administration of DG or GBE for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke in humans.

Metabolite-related antidepressant action of diterpene ginkgolides in the prefrontal cortex

PURPOSE

Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) contains diterpene ginkgolides (DGs), which have been shown to have neuroprotective effects by a number of previous studies. We previously demonstrated part of the action of DG. However, the impact of DG on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) remains unclear. Here, we evaluated the effects of DG and venlafaxine (for comparison) on behavioral and metabolite changes in the PFC using mice models and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based metabolomics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were randomly divided into control (saline), DG (12.18 mg/kg) and venlafaxine (16 mg/kg) groups. After 2 weeks of treatment, depression and anxiety-related behavioral tests were performed. Metabolic profiles of the PFC were detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

The DG group exhibited positive effects in the sucrose preference test. The differential metabolites were mainly related to amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism and lipid metabolism. The results indicated that the DG group exhibited perturbed lipid metabolism, molecular transport and small-molecule biochemistry in the PFC. Compared with the control group, pathway analysis indicated that venlafaxine and DG had similar effects on alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that DG has antidepressant-like, but not anxiolytic-like, effects in mice, suggesting that it might have therapeutic potential for the treatment of major depressive disorder.

Enhanced transport of plant-produced rabies single-chain antibody-RVG peptide fusion protein across an in cellulo blood-brain barrier device

The biomedical applications of antibody engineering are developing rapidly and have been expanded to plant expression platforms. In this study, we have generated a novel antibody molecule in planta for targeted delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Rabies virus (RABV) is a neurotropic virus for which there is no effective treatment after entry into the central nervous system. This study investigated the use of a RABV glycoprotein peptide sequence to assist delivery of a rabies neutralizing single-chain antibody (ScFv) across an in cellulo model of human BBB. The 29 amino acid rabies virus peptide (RVG) recognizes the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) at neuromuscular junctions and the BBB. ScFv and ScFv-RVG fusion proteins were produced in Nicotiana benthamiana by transient expression. Both molecules were successfully expressed and purified, but the ScFv expression level was significantly higher than that of ScFv-RVG fusion. Both ScFv and ScFv-RVG fusion molecules had potent neutralization activity against RABVin cellulo. The ScFv-RVG fusion demonstrated increased binding to nAchR and entry into neuronal cells, compared to ScFv alone. Additionally, a human brain endothelial cell line BBB model was used to demonstrate that plant-produced ScFv-RVGP fusion could translocate across the cells. This study indicates that the plant-produced ScFv-RVGP fusion protein was able to cross the in celluloBBB and neutralize RABV.

Insight into the metabolic mechanism of Diterpene Ginkgolides on antidepressant effects for attenuating behavioural deficits compared with venlafaxine

Depression is a severe and chronic mental disorder, affecting about 322 million individuals worldwide. A recent study showed that diterpene ginkgolides (DG) have antidepressant-like effects on baseline behaviours in mice. Here, we examined the effects of DG and venlafaxine (VLX) in a chronic social defeat stress model of depression. Both DG and VLX attenuated stress-induced social deficits, despair behaviour and exploratory behaviour. To elucidate the metabolic changes underlying the antidepressive effects of DG and VLX, we investigated candidate functional pathways in the prefrontal cortex using a GC-MS-based metabolomics approach. Metabolic functions and pathways analysis revealed that DG and VLX affect protein biosynthesis and nucleotide metabolism to enhance cell proliferation, with DG having a weaker impact than VLX. Glutamate and aspartate metabolism played important roles in the antidepressant effects of DG and VLX. Tyrosine degradation and cell-to-cell signaling and interaction helped discriminate the two antidepressants. L-glutamic acid was negatively correlated, while hypoxanthine was positively correlated, with the social interaction ratio. Understanding the metabolic changes produced by DG and VLX should provide insight into the mechanisms of action of these drugs and aid in the development of novel therapies for depression.

GC-MS-based metabolomic study on the antidepressant-like effects of diterpene ginkgolides in mouse hippocampus

Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE), including EGb-761, have been suggested to have antidepressant activity based on previous behavioral and biochemical analyses. However, because GBE contain many constituents, the mechanisms underlying this suggested antidepressant activity are unclear. Here, we investigated the antidepressant-like effects of diterpene ginkgolides (DG), an important class of constituents in GBE, and studied their effects in the mouse hippocampus using a GC-MS-based metabolomics approach. Mice were randomly divided into five groups and injected daily until testing with 0.9% NaCl solution, one of three doses of DG (4.06, 12.18, and 36.54mg/kg), or venlafaxine. Sucrose preference (SPT) and tail suspension (TST) tests were then performed to evaluate depressive-like behaviors in mice. DG (12.18 and 36.54mg/kg) and venlafaxine (VLX) administration significantly increased hedonic behavior in mice in the SPT. DG (12.18mg/kg) treatment also shortened immobility time in the TST, suggestive of antidepressant-like effects. Significant differences in the metabolic profile in the DG (12.18mg/kg) compared with the control or VLX group indicative of an antidepressant-like effect were observed using multivariate analysis. Eighteen differential hippocampal metabolites were identified that discriminated the DG (12.18mg/kg) and control groups. These biochemical changes involved neurotransmitter metabolism, oxidative stress, glutathione metabolism, lipid metabolism, energy metabolism, and kynurenic acid, providing clues to the therapeutic mechanisms of DG. Thus, this study showed that DG has antidepressant-like activities in mice and shed light on the biological mechanisms underlying the effects of diterpene ginkgolides on behavior, providing an important drug candidate for the treatment of depression.

Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of ginkgolide A, ginkgolide B, and ginkgolide K after intravenous infusion of ginkgo diterpene lactones in a rat model

Ginkgo diterpene lactones are compounds that are extracted from the Ginkgo biloba leaf and possess pharmacologic activities with neuroprotective effects. To address the poor bioavailability of ginkgo diterpene lactones, ginkgo diterpene lactone meglumine injection (GDLI) was formulated and is commercially available. In this study, a simple, sensitive and reliable liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for assessing the total amount and the amount of the prototype forms of ginkgolides A (GA), B (GB) and K (GK) in rat plasma and tissues. This method was used to calculate the concentrations of the hydrolysed carboxylic forms and assess the pharmacokinetics of the ginkgolides after intravenous (i.v.) GDLI administration in rats. Generally, all three ginkgolide forms showed dose-dependent plasma concentrations, and no obvious differences in pharmacokinetic parameters, i.e., area under the curve (AUC) of plasma concentration versus time and half-life, were observed after GDLI administration on 7 consecutive days. These ginkgolides primarily existed in the carboxylic form in the plasma, and the systemic concentrations of the carboxylic forms of GA and GB were 11- to 17- and 3- to 4-fold higher than those of their prototype forms, respectively. In contrast, dramatically increased levels of the GA and GB prototype lactones were detected in the liver and heart. GA, GB, and GK were extensively distributed in various organs/tissues; the highest levels were found in the kidneys, liver, and intestine, and the lowest levels were found in the brain. These data suggest that ginkgolides have difficulty crossing the blood-brain barrier and that their targets for protecting against cerebral ischaemia are located outside the central system.

Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution study of ginkgolide L in rats by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry

An ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) approach was developed and validated for the determination of ginkgolide L (GL) in rat plasma and tissues using diazepam as internal standard (IS). Detection was performed on a triple quadrupole MS system using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode in positive mode. Sample preparation was carried out through a liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate. The chromatographic separation was achieved by using an Agilent ZORBAX SB-Aq column with a mobile phase of 0.5% aqueous formic acid (A) and methanol (B). The monitored transitions were set at m/z 391.14→271.10 for GL and m/z 285.08→193.10 for IS, respectively. The validated method was successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution study of GL in rats after intravenous administration. Good linearity was found between 2.5-2000ng/mL (r>0.996) for plasma samples, and calibration curves were also linear for other tissue samples over a wide range. The results indicated that GL has linear pharmacokinetic properties after intravenous administration at three doses. GL could distribute to tissues quickly and the major distribution tissue of GL in rats was liver. This was the first report of pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution data for GL.