Lycopene abrogates di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induced testicular injury by modulating oxidative, endocrine and inflammatory changes in mice

Antioxidants in mitigating phthalate-induced male reproductive toxicity: A comprehensive review

Phthalates, widely used as plasticizers, have been increasingly linked to male reproductive toxicity through mechanisms including oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, inflammation, and apoptosis. This comprehensive review evaluates the protective role of various antioxidants in mitigating the detrimental effects of phthalates such as di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-butyl phthalate (DBP), mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), and monobutyl phthalate (MBP) on male reproductive health. Antioxidants such as lycopene, ellagic acid, genistein, and selenium compounds exhibit significant efficacy in counteracting phthalate-induced damage by neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS), enhancing endogenous antioxidant defenses, reducing inflammatory responses, and preventing apoptosis. Lycopene demonstrates broad-spectrum protective effects, particularly through its high ROS-scavenging capacity and ability to preserve mitochondrial function. Ellagic acid effectively ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation, while genistein enhances the Nrf2 pathway and restores hormonal balance, offering robust protection against reproductive toxicity. Selenium compounds improve antioxidant enzyme activities, providing essential support against oxidative damage. These findings underscore the potential of antioxidants as therapeutic agents against phthalate-induced male reproductive dysfunction. Future research should focus on optimizing antioxidant combinations, understanding dose-response relationships, and assessing long-term efficacy and safety to develop effective interventions for safeguarding male reproductive health.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its metabolites research trend: a bibliometric analysis

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is one of the most widely used plasticizers. Many studies focus on the impact of continuous exposure to DEHP on humans and ecosystems. In this study, the bibliometric analysis of DEHP and its metabolites research was conducted to assess the research performances, hotspot issues, and trends in this field. The data was retrieved from a Web of Science Core Collection online database. VOSviewer 1.6.18 was used to analyze. A total of 4672 publications were collected from 1975 to 2022 October 21. The number of publications and citations increased annually in the last decades. China had the largest number of publications, and the USA had the highest co-authorship score. The most productive and most frequently cited institutions were the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (USA), respectively. The journal with the most publications was the Science of Total Environment, and the most cited one was the Environmental Health Perspectives. The most productive and cited author was Calafat A. M. (USA). The most cited reference was "Phthalates: toxicology and exposure." Four hotspot issues were as follows: influences of DEHP on the organisms and its possible mechanisms, assessment of DEHP exposure to the human and its metabolism, dynamics of DEHP in external environments, and indoor exposure of DEHP and health outcomes. The research trends were DNOP, preterm birth, gut microbiota, microplastics, lycopene, hypertension, and thyroid hormones. This study can provide researchers with new ideas and decision-makers with reference basis to formulate relevant policies.

Lycopene protects against ionizing radiation-induced testicular damage by inhibition of apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction

Ionizing radiation (IR) is one of the key contributors that cause male infertility by disturbing spermatogenesis. Lycopene, a carotenoid with strong antioxidant properties, was shown to protect against oxidative damage induced by IR in several experimental models. The present study was designed to explore the possible protective effects of lycopene against IR-induced testicular damage in C57BL/6 mice. Mice were administered lycopene (20 mg/kg) by oral gavage for seven consecutive days prior to a single dose of whole-body X-ray irradiation (4 Gy, 1 Gy/min). We observed that lycopene remarkably augmented sperm motility and reduced sperm abnormalities in mice following IR exposure. Histopathological analyses also revealed that lycopene ameliorated the structural damage of seminiferous tubules and enhanced the regeneration of seminiferous epithelium following IR stress. Moreover, lycopene attenuated IR-induced oxidative stress, as evidenced by a decreasing lipid peroxidation level and an increase in the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase activity. In addition, lycopene reduced the γH2AX expression and the number of TUNEL-positive cells in the germinal epithelium, as well as restoring the imbalance of Bax/Bcl-2 expression induced by IR exposure. Furthermore, lycopene prevented mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization and ATP reduction and preserved the activities of mitochondrial complexes I-IV in the testes of mice after exposure to IR. Lycopene also improved mitochondrial biogenesis in testes of mice exposed to IR, presenting as restored expressions of PGC-1α, Nrf1, and Tfam. Taken together, our results suggest that lycopene alleviates IR-induced testicular damage, and the underlying mechanism involves at least in part the inhibition of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and the maintenance of mitochondrial respiration and biogenesis. The beneficial effect of lycopene highlights the therapeutic potential of this plant-derived antioxidant against impaired spermatogenesis and male infertility induced by IR.

Subchronic exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) elicits blood-brain barrier dysfunction and neuroinflammation in male C57BL/6J mice

BACKGROUND

Exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) can cause neurotoxicity but the mechanism is not clear. Blood brain barrier (BBB) is one of the most important tissues to protect the brain. However, whether DEHP can disrupt the BBB or not remains unclear. The objective of this study is to investigate the potential effects of subchronic DEHP exposure on BBB integrity and discuss the role of BBB in DEHP inducible neurotoxicity with an emphasis on neuroinflammatory responses. Male adult C57BL/6J mice were orally administered with vehicle or 200 or 750 mg/kg/day DEHP for 90 days. Subchronic exposure to high-dose DEHP increased water intake but decreased body weight and brain weight. The concentrations of DEHP metabolites increased in serum from all DEHP-exposed groups while increased in brain only from the high-dose group. DEHP induced neurobehavioural alterations and damaged hippocampal neurons. DEHP increased BBB permeability by Evans blue (EB) extravasation and decreased tight junction proteins (ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-5) while presenting a neuroinflammatory feature characterized by the upregulated inflammatory mediators TNF-α and the NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1β inflammasome pathway. Our data provide new insights into neurotoxicity caused by subchronic DEHP exposure, which is probably involved in BBB dysfunction and neuroinflammatory responses.

Gemfibrozil palliates adriamycin-induced testicular injury in male rats via modulating oxidative, endocrine and inflammatory changes in rats

Adriamycin (ADR), an antineoplastic drug, is widely used to treat different types of cancers. Yet, the usage is limited because of its severe side effects on testis. On the other hand, gemfibrozil (GEM), as an anti-hyperlipidemic drug, has other pharmacological effects independent of lipid- lowering activity including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The present experiment was designed to investigate the effect of GEM on ADR-induced testicular injury in male rats. A total of 28 male Wistar rats were divided into 4 equal groups: Control; ADR; ADR + GEM; GEM. Serum level of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone were assessed. Also, testicular tissue oxidant/antioxidant markers (malondialdehyde, total antioxidant capacity, nitric oxide, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione) and proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β) were measured. Histopathological studies were conducted on testes. GEM improved hormonal profile and antioxidant defenses in comparison with ADR-treated animals. GEM, significantly reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines compared with ADR-treated animals. Hormonal and biochemical results were further supported by testicular histopathological findings. Thus, GEM might represent a promising therapeutic modality for the attenuation of testicular injury induced by ADR in clinic.

Lycopene Alleviates Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle-Induced Testicular Toxicity by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in Mice

PURPOSE

The research was carried out to investigate the possible ameliorative effect of lycopene on TiO₂ NPs-induced male reproductive toxicity and explore the possible mechanism.

METHODS

Ninety-six healthy male Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice were equally divided into eight groups (control group, 50 mg/kg TiO₂ NPs group, 5 mg/kg LYC group, 20 mg/kg LYC group, 40 mg/kg LYC group, 50 mg/kg TiO₂ NPs + 5 mg/kg LYC group, 50 mg/kg TiO₂ NPs + 20 mg/kg LYC group, 50 mg/kg TiO₂ NPs + 40 mg/kg LYC group), and the mice were treated by intragastric administration every day for 30 days in this research. Sperm parameters, testicular histopathology, oxidant and antioxidant enzymes, and cell apoptosis-related protein expression in the testicular tissue were analyzed.

RESULTS

The results showed that TiO₂ NPs exposure significantly decreased sperm count and motility, and TiO₂ NPs also increased sperm malformation in the epididymis; these characteristics were improved when co-administration with LYC. Testicular histopathological lesions like disorder of germ cells arrange, detachment, atrophy, and vacuolization were observed after TiO₂ NPs exposure, and these abnormalities were effectively ameliorated by co-administration with LYC. Oxidative stress was induced by TiO₂ NPs exposure as evidenced by increased the level of MDA and decreased the activity of SOD as well as the level of anti-O₂^-, and these alterations were effectively prevented by co-administration with LYC. LYC also alleviated TiO₂ NPs-induced germ cell apoptosis by inhibiting mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, as shown by the upregulation of Bcl-2, the downregulation of Bax, Cleaved Caspase 3, and Cleaved Caspase 9.

CONCLUSION

LYC could ameliorate TiO₂ NPs-induced testicular damage via inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis, which could be used to alleviate the testicular toxicity associated with TiO₂ NPs intake.

Gallic acid ameliorates di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular injury in adult mice

Background: Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a well-known endocrine-disrupting compound inducing degeneration of testes. Gallic acid (GA) is a polyphenol with various pharmacological properties, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.Purpose: This research evaluated effects of different doses of GA on DEHP-induced testicular injury in adult mice.Research Design: Male mice were randomly divided into five groups and treated with agents for two weeks; group (I) received normal saline and corn oil (5 mL/kg/day, p. o.), group (II) received DEHP (2 g/kg/day, dissolved in corn oil, p. o.), groups (III, IV, and V) received DEHP + GA (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg/day, p. o.). Body and testes weights, serum testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were evaluated. The number of sperms and sperm motility and viability were analyzed in the cauda epididymis. Histological changes, oxidative/nitrosative stress markers, and inflammatory cytokines levels were examined in testes.Results: Body and testes weights, the number of spermatogonia, primary spermatocyte and early spermatid, and late spermatid and sperm vitality, and progressive motility were significantly reduced in mice exposed to DEHP. Serum testosterone level decreased and serum LH and FSH levels increased in DEHP-exposed mice. These alterations were associated with the increased oxidative stress level and inflammatory responses in testicular tissue. Treatment with GA (50 and 100 mg/kg/day) attenuated DEHP-induced alterations in oxidative stress markers and inflammatory cytokines and reversed abnormality in sperm characteristic and number, tissue structure, and serum hormones levels.Conclusions: Results indicated that GA might be a promising agent against male gonadal toxicity induced by endocrine disrupting chemicals including DEHP.

The ameliorative effect of ellagic acid on di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular structural alterations, oxidative stress, inflammation and sperm damages in adult mice

BACKGROUND

Phthalates such as di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are well known exogenous substances, disrupting reproductive system function and structure. The current research demonstrated the effect of ellagic acid (EA) on DEHP-induced testicular injury in mice.

METHODS

Thirty-five healthy adult male mice were randomly divided to five groups; normal saline receiving group, DEHP (2 g/kg/day, dissolved in corn oil, p.o.) receiving group, DEHP (2 g/kg/day, dissolved in corn oil, p.o.) and EA receiving groups (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg/day, p.o.). Treatment duration of animals was 14 days. Body and testes weights and sperm characteristics and histological changes of testes were evaluated. Serum testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were analyzed. In the testicular tissue, oxidative/nitrosative stress markers and inflammatory cytokine levels were measured.

RESULTS

Ellagic acid significantly reduced DEHP-induced reduction of body and testes weights. The DEHP-induced reduction of spermatogonia, primary spermatocyte and sertoli cells numbers as well as reduction of sperm vitality and progressive motility were reversed by EA. Furthermore, EA inhibited DEHP-induced alterations in serum hormone levels. These effects were associated with the reduction of DEHP-induced increased level of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Ellagic acid considerably inhibits testicular toxicity of DEHP through reducing oxidative/nitrosative stress and inflammatory responses. Our data suggest that EA may be considered as a promising agent to inhibit male reproductive toxicity induced by endocrine disrupting chemicals such as DEHP.

Effect of exogenous melatonin on endocrinological profiles, biochemical and antioxidant and oxidative stress profiles in post-partum anestrus Andaman local buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in tropical island ecosystem

Andaman local buffalo (ALB) is distributed in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ALB is non-descriptive and represents admixture of different Indian breeds of buffaloes. ALB is suffering infertility due to anestrus in dry (summer) season. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the effect of slow release subcutaneous exogenous melatonin (MT) implant on hematological profiles, endocrinological profiles (cortisol and prolactin), biochemical profile (total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose and total cholesterol), antioxidant profiles [total antioxidant capacity (TAC), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD)] and oxidative stress profile (malondialdehyde; MDA) in anestrus buffalo cows during summer to improve its reproductive efficiency. Experimental buffaloes (5–7 years of age) were selected and divided into two groups, Gr I: Control (n=6) and Gr II: Treatment (n=6; melatonin implant @ 18 mg/50 kg b.wt). Statistical analysis revealed that these experimental profiles differed significantly between treatment and control groups. Blood profiles revealed that anestrus buffalo suffered severe macrocytic hypochromic anemia with increased leukocytosis and MT has improved the health status of reproductive system and whole body systems. Concentration of cortisol and prolactin were lower in MT treated than in control group. Similarly, antioxidant profiles were higher and oxidative stress profile was lower in MT treated group than in control group. Biochemical profiles were increased in MT treated than in untreated buffalos. Study concludes that melatonin had significant beneficial effects in improvement of the antioxidant profiles, minimization of oxidative stress with cascading beneficial effects on hormone, biochemical and hematological profiles, which will improve the cyclicity and fertility rate in anestrus buffalo during summers in humid tropical island ecosystem.

Mangiferin mitigates di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular injury in rats by modulating oxidative stress-mediated signals, inflammatory cascades, apoptotic pathways, and steroidogenesis

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an endocrine disruptor that causes reproductive defects in male animal models. This study was conducted to explore the plausible modulatory effects of mangiferin (MF) against DEHP-induced testicular injury in rats. Thirty-two adult male albino rats were allocated into four groups. Two groups were given DEHP (2 g/kg/day, p.o) for 14 days. One of these groups was treated with MF (20 mg/kg/day, i.p) for 7 days before and 14 days after DEHP administration. A vehicle-treated control was included, and another group of rats was given MF only. Results revealed that MF treatment suppressed oxidative testicular injury by amplifying the mRNA expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor-2 (Nrf2) and increasing hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1), glutathione, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels. This treatment also enhanced superoxide dismutase activity, but it decreased malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels. MF had an anti-inflammatory characteristic, as demonstrated by the downregulation of the mRNA of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). The content of tumor necrosis factor-alpha also decreased. MF modulated the apoptotic pathway by suppressing the mRNA of cytochrome c (Cyt c), Fas ligand content, Bax IHC expression, caspase-3 activity and cleaved caspase-3 IHC expression. It also upregulated the expression levels of heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) and B-cell lymphoma 2. Moreover, MF upregulated the mRNA expression levels of HSP70 and c-kit and enriched the content of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein, which were reflected in serum testosterone levels. This result indicated that MF played crucial roles in steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Besides, the activities of testicular marker enzymes, namely, acid and alkaline phosphatases, and lactate dehydrogenase, significantly increased. Histopathological observations provided evidence supporting the biochemical and molecular measurements. In conclusion, MF provided protective mechanisms against the DEHP-mediated deterioration of testicular functions partially through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. It also involved the restoration of steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis through the modulation of Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB/Cyt c/HSP70, and c-Kit signaling cascades.

Lycopene attenuates di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced mitophagy in spleen by regulating the sirtuin3-mediated pathway

Lycopene (Lyc) has been discussed as a potential effector in the prevention and therapy of various diseases. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is regarded as a universal environmental pollutant. To clarify the potential protective effect of Lyc on DEHP-induced splenic injury, 140 male mice were randomized into seven groups: control (distilled water), vehicle control (corn oil per day), Lyc (5 mg per kg BW per day), DEHP (500 or 1000 mg per kg BW per day), and DEHP combined Lyc group, respectively. All experimental animals were treated by oral gavage for 28 days. The results that showed DEHP exposure significantly up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of the sirtuin family (except SIRT4-5), PGC-1α, OPA1, Drp1, MFN1/2, NRF1, TFAM, Parkin and PINK in DEHP-treated alone groups and the SOD2 and LC3-II protein expression were also in accordance with the above changes. These were accompanied with an increase of the number of inflammatory cells and rate of mitochondrial damage, and autophagosome formation in the spleen. Notably, Lyc supplementation facilitated all these changes to effectively return to the normal level, indicating that Lyc exerts protective effects against DEHP-induced splenic toxicity. Altogether, the protective effects of Lyc may be a strategy to ameliorate DEHP-induced spleen damage.

Moringa oleifera Protects SH-SY5YCells from DEHP-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Apoptosis

Moringa oleifera (MO) is a medicinal plant that has been shown to possess antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and antibiotic activities. In a rat model, MO extract (MOe) has been shown to have a protective effect against brain damage and memory decline. As an extending study, here, we have examined the protective effect of MOe against oxidative stress and apoptosis caused in human neuroblastome (SH-SY5Y) cells by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a plasticizer known to induce neurotoxicity. Our data show that MOe prevents oxidative damage by lowering reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, restoring mitochondrial respiratory chain complex activities, and, in addition, by modulating the expression of vitagenes, i.e., antioxidant proteins Nrf2 and HO-1. Moreover, MOe prevented neuronal damage by partly inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response, as indicated by decreased expression of CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP) and Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) proteins. MOe also protected SH-SY5Y cells from DEHP-induced apoptosis, preserving mitochondrial membrane permeability and caspase-3 activation. Our findings provide insight into understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in neuroprotective effects by MOe against DEHP damage.

Daily and seasonal rhythmic secretary pattern of endocrinological profiles in mithun bull

Mithun (Bos frontalis) is a unique domestic free-range bovine species available in North Eastern hilly (NEH) regions of India and is reared for its protein rich meat. Mithun suffers severe non-cyclical population fluctuations; however, it is not yet declared as endangered species. Mithun follows some sort of seasonality based on the calving trend and semen production, although it is a perennial breeder. However, there is need to study the rhythmic changes of endocrine profiles to understand the hormone flow pattern in mithun to select the suitable time for blood collection to assess the exact endocrine profiles and to select the suitable time for natural breeding or semen collection by artificial methods for further research, conservation and propagation of its germplasm. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the reproductive as well as metabolic endocrinological profiles in 24:00 h in intact adult mithun bulls during different seasons (winter, spring, summer and autumn) to know the rhythmic changes and flow pattern of the endocrinological profiles to improve its reproductive efficiency. Experimental mithun bulls (n = 6; age: 5-6 years; body condition score: 5-6 out of 10, classified as good) were selected for the study. Endocrinological profiles, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone/interstitial cell stimulating hormone (LH/ICSH), testosterone, cortisol, thyroxine (T4), insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), prolactin and melatonin (MT) were estimated at 04:00 h interval for one whole day in four seasons. The analysis was completed in two different ways as different times of collection (08:00, 12:00, 16:00, 20:00, 24:00 and 04:00 h) and day (08:00 to 16:00 h) & night time (20:00 to 04:00 h) collections. Repeated measures ANOVA analysis revealed that the bulls in winter and spring had significantly (p < 0.05) higher FSH, LH, testosterone, T4, IGF-1 and MT than those in summer whereas the bulls in summer had significantly higher cortisol and prolactin than those in winter and spring seasons. Similarly FSH, LH, testosterone, T4, IGF-1 and MT were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in night than in day time collections whereas cortisol and prolactin were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in day than in night time collections in different seasons. Correlation analysis revealed that FSH, LH, testosterone, T4, IGF-1 and MT had significant (p < 0.05) positive correlation with each other whereas these had significant (p < 0.05) negative correlation with cortisol and prolactin. The study concludes that season and time of blood collection had significant effect on the endocrinological profiles in mithun bulls. Estimation of FSH, LH, testosterone, T4, IGF-1 and MT during night time and cortisol and prolactin during day time was more appropriate to get correct value of the endocrinological profiles. Spring and winter have significantly greater beneficial effects than summer on reproduction and artificial breeding programs in mithun species in the semi-intensive management in the present location.

Lycopene Ameliorates Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate-Induced Pyroptosis in Spleen via Suppression of Classic Caspase-1/NLRP3 Pathway

Lycopene (Lyc) as a natural antioxidant has attracted widespread attention. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) can cause serious spleen injury in animals via the environment and food chain. For investigation of whether Lyc could alleviate DEHP-exerted pyroptosis in spleen through inhibiting the Caspase-1/NLRP3 pathway activation, 140 male mice were randomly divided into 7 groups: control group, vehicle control group, Lyc group (5 mg/kg BW/day), DEHP-exposed group (500 or 1000 mg/kg BW/day, respectively), and DEHP + Lyc groups by daily administration for 28 days. Pathological results showed that the supplementation of Lyc alleviated DEHP-induced inflammatory infiltration. Moreover, the addition of Lyc inhibited DEHP-induced Caspase-1, NLRP3, ASC, NF-κB, IL-1β, and IL-18 overexpression and GSDMD down-expression. These results indicate that Lyc could inhibit DEHP-induced Caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis and the inflammatory response. Taken together, the study provided new evidence that Lyc may be a strategy to mitigate spleen injury induced by DEHP.

The gut-microbiota-testis axis mediated by the activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway is related to prepuberal steroidogenesis disorders induced by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a common plasticizer, which is known to be an environmental endocrine-disrupting chemical that can jeopardize the male reproductive system. Prepuberal exposure to DEHP leads to steroidogenesis disorders. However, the specific mechanism remains ambiguous. Therefore, Sprague Dawley (SD) rats underwent prepuberal DEHP exposure at a dose of 500 mg/kg per day through gavage. Additionally, the resulting testicular injury was evaluated to confirm the disturbed steroidogenesis. Changes in testicular histology, significant reduction of serum testosterone (P < 0.01) and luteinizing hormone (P < 0.001), and significantly decreased expressions of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (P < 0.01) and 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (P < 0.05) were found in DEHP-treated rats. DEHP exposure resulted in obvious intestinal damage and oxidative stress imbalance, primarily in the jejunum. Both the activation of the nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway and alterations of microbiota profiles were observed in all three gut specimens, but were most notable in the jejunum. We hypothesize that the gut-microbiota-testis axis, which is mediated by the activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway, could be involved in the dysfunction of prepuberal steroidogenesis induced by DEHP.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor as a Target for Lycopene Preventing DEHP-Induced Spermatogenic Disorders

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is widely used as a plasticizer to improve product flexibility and workability. Lycopene (LYC) is a natural compound and has promising preventive potentials, especially antireproductive toxicity, but the specific underlying mechanism is yet to be fully defined. Our study investigated the effect of LYC on DEHP-induced spermatogenesis disorders. Male ICR mice were treated with DEHP (500 or 1000 mg/kg BW/day) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. Our results indicated that LYC could relieve the DEHP-induced injury of seminiferous tubules and spermatogenic cells, swelling of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and an increase of mitochondria. LYC prevented increased levels of nuclear damage to DNA and the deformity rate and decreased values of sperm motility, number, and density. Moreover, LYC treatment decreased DEHP-induced nuclear accumulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and AHR nuclear translocator (ARNT), and the expressions of their downstream target genes such as cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases (CYP) 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 were markedly reduced to normal in the LYC treatment group. Our study showed that LYC can prevent DEHP-induced spermatogenic disorders via an AHR/ARNT signaling system. This study provided new evidence of AHR as a target for LYC, which can prevent DEHP-induced toxicity.

Protective effect of alpha-lipoic acid on di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular toxicity in mice

Phthalates are synthetic chemicals, widely used as plasticizers due to their flexibility in plastics. Human populations may be exposed to phthalates through direct contact or environmental contamination. Most studies have focused on the effects of phthalates on the reproductive tract and have classified these compounds as endocrine disruptors. In this study, we aimed to investigate the possible oxidative damage induced by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in the mouse testis and to evaluate the regulatory effects of alpha-lipoic acid (LA). For this purpose, forty male mice were divided into four experimental groups. Group I received normal saline (2 mL/kg; p.o.) and corn oil (5 mL/kg; p.o.) as the control group, group II received DEHP (2 g/kg; p.o.), group III received DEHP and LA (20 mg/kg; p.o.), and group IV was treated with LA alone; treatments continued for 2 weeks. The glutathione level (GSH), as well as glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activities, was determined in mice. In addition, serum concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were measured. Nitric oxide (NO) level, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, sperm characteristics, and histological changes of the testes were also evaluated. The results showed that 2 g/kg of DEHP could significantly decrease the sperm motility. Based on our findings, DEHP significantly reduced the production and count of sperms; these toxic effects were associated with alterations in the serum hormone levels. In the DEHP group, a significant reduction was reported in the serum testosterone, FSH, and LH levels. LA improved DEHP-induced changes in hormonal levels and sperm index. According to our findings, treatment with DEHP triggered histopathological changes and oxidative stress, which were normalized by LA pretreatment. In conclusion, DEHP disrupts the testicular function in rats, at least partly through induction of oxidative stress. On the other hand, LA exhibits potential protective effects on testicular toxicity induced by DEHP.

Increased m6A RNA modification is related to the inhibition of the Nrf2-mediated antioxidant response in di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced prepubertal testicular injury

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a common environmental endocrine disrupting chemical that may induce male reproductive disorders. Exposure to DEHP at a prepubertal stage could lead to prepubertal testicular injury, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we exposed Sprague-Dawley rats to 0, 250, and 500 mg DEHP per kg body weight per day at the prepuberty stage from postnatal day 22 (PND 22) to PND 35 by oral gavage. Testicular injury and oxidative stress were evaluated, and the levels of 6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification and expression of modulator genes for RNA methylation were measured in testes. Furthermore, m6A modification of the important antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2 was analyzed using methylated RNA immunoprecipitation qPCR. Our results show that DEHP worsened testicular histology, decreased testosterone concentrations, downregulated expression of spermatogenesis inducers, enhanced oxidative stress, inhibited the Nrf2-mediated antioxidant pathway, and increased apoptosis in testes. Additionally, DEHP increased global levels of m6A RNA modification and altered the expression of two important RNA methylation modulator genes, FTO and YTHDC2. Moreover, m6A modification of Nrf2 mRNA increased upon DEHP exposure. Overall, these findings link oxidative stress imbalance with epigenetic effects of DEHP toxicity and provide insight into the testicular toxicity of DEHP from the new perspective of m6A modification.

Lycopene alleviates disc degeneration under oxidative stress through the Nrf2 signaling pathway

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a main cause of diseases such as discogenic low back pain, cervical and lumbar disc herniation, degenerative spinal stenosis, and lumbar spondylolisthesis. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), an important transcription factor, regulates antioxidant genes and induces cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative stress. In this study, the protective effect of plant antioxidant lycopene on nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) under oxidative stress was investigated. The results indicated that Nrf2 expression decreased in degenerated NPCs. We further found that lycopene was protective in NP tissue under oxidative stress and alleviated oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of degenerative human NPCs via Nrf2. The results also showed that lycopene reduced H₂O₂-induced decomposition of cartilage extracellular matrix in NPCs. In conclusion, our findings suggested that lycopene may alleviate disc degeneration under oxidative stress through the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Lycopene Prevents DEHP-Induced Leydig Cell Damage with the Nrf2 Antioxidant Signaling Pathway in Mice

As a plasticizer, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most usually used phthalate. Leydig cell is a male-specific cell, which plays a principal role in spermatogenesis and masculinization by the androgens of synthesis and secretion. Numerous researchers have indicated that DEHP can result in testicular toxicity by inducing oxidative stress. Lycopene (LYC) is a possible treatment option for male infertility due to its natural antioxidant properties. Our study was aimed to investigate whether LYC could rescue DEHP-induced Leydig cell damage. The mice were treated with DEHP (500 mg/kg BW/day or 1000 mg/kg BW/day) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. We found that LYC attenuated DEHP-induced Leydig cell damage. Moreover, the protective role of LYC was verified by the histopathological and ultrastructural analysis of the Leydig cell. LYC suppressed oxidative stress that was induced by DEHP. In the Leydig cell, the expressions of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream target genes were improved through LYC-mediated protection in DEHP-induced Leydig cell damage. Our findings indicated that LYC could increase the antioxidant capacity via mediating Nrf2 signaling pathway, thereby attenuating DEHP-induced Leydig cell damage.

Rosmarinic acid alleviates di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) -induced thyroid dysfunction via multiple inflammasomes activation

DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), an environmental endocrine disruptor, is widely used in industrial products, particularly as plasticizers and softeners which could disrupt the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis. Rosmarinic acid (RA) possesses potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities in disease models. Nevertheless, evidence on the association between DEHP-induced thyroid dysfunction and inflammation, as well as the molecular mechanism underlying the protective effects of RA-mitigated DEHP-induced thyroid injury remains inconclusive. Male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were intragastrically administered DEHP (150 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, 600 mg/kg) once a day for 90 consecutive days. Also, FRTL-5 cells were treated with a wide range of DEHP concentrations (10-8, 10-7, 10-6, 10-5, 10-4, 10-3, 10-2 M) for 24 hr. Subsequently, RA (50 μM) was administered for 24 hr before 10-4 M DEHP challenge. We found that DEHP induced thyroid damage and inflammatory infiltration in vivo. In addition, we showed that DEHP triggered inflammatory cell death, which is mediated by multiple inflammasomes. Moreover, RA, pyroptosis inhibitor (Ac-YVAD-cmk) and antioxidant inhibitor (NAC) treatment significantly alleviated DEHP-induced thyrocyte death, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine production, inhibiting multiple inflammasomes activation and attenuating thyrocyte death, respectively. Collectively, our results reveal that a critical role of inflammasomes activation in DEHP-induced thyroid injury, and suggest that RA confers protection against DEHP-induced thyroid inflammation, and facilitating control of the effects of DEHP after given pyroptosis inhibitor or antioxidant inhibitor. These results indicate that it should be possible to provide novel insights into toxicologically and pharmacologically targeting this molecule to DEHP-induced inflammation.

Lactobacillus plantarum TW1-1 Alleviates Diethylhexylphthalate-Induced Testicular Damage in Mice by Modulating Gut Microbiota and Decreasing Inflammation

Diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP), acting as an endocrine disruptor, disturbed reproductive health. Here, we evaluated the effects of Lactobacillus plantarum TW1-1 (L. plantarum TW1-1) on DEHP-induced testicular damage in adult male mice. Results showed that oral supplementation of L. plantarum TW1-1 significantly increased the serum testosterone concentration, enhanced the semen quality, and attenuated gonad development defects in DEHP-exposed mice. L. plantarum TW1-1 also alleviated DEHP-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses by decreasing the mRNA expression and serum protein concentration of different inflammatory factors [tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6]. Furthermore, L. plantarum TW1-1 significantly reduced DEHP-induced intestinal hyper-permeability and the increase in the serum lipopolysaccharide level. Gut microbiota diversity analysis revealed that L. plantarum TW1-1 shifted the DEHP-disrupted gut microbiota to that of the control mice. At phylum level, L. plantarum TW1-1 reversed DEHP-induced Bacteroidetes increase and Firmicutes decrease, and restored Deferribacteres in DEHP-exposed mice. Spearman's correlation analysis showed that Bacteroidetes, Deferribacteres, and Firmicutes were associated with DEHP-induced testicular damage. In addition, the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (Firm/Bac ratio) significantly decreased from 0.28 (control group) to 0.13 (DEHP-exposed group), which was restored by L. plantarum TW1-1 treatment. Correlation analysis showed that the Firm/Bac ratio was negatively correlated with testicular damage and inflammation. These findings suggest that L. plantarum TW1-1 prevents DEHP-induced testicular damage via modulating gut microbiota and decreasing inflammation.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induced an increase in blood pressure via activation of ACE and inhibition of the bradykinin-NO pathway

Epidemiological studies and animal experiments have suggested that exposure to Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is strongly associated with an increase in blood pressure. However, the mechanisms that result in the detrimental effects of DEHP exposure on blood pressure are unclear. In our study, mice were orally exposed to DEHP dosages of 0.1, 1, 10 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks. The results showed that DEHP could induce a significant increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate, and a significant thickening of the ventricular wall. To explore the underlying mechanism, we measured the level of: angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE); bradykinin B2 receptor (BK2R); endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS); bradykinin and Ca²⁺ in cardiac cytoplasm as well as in serum nitric oxide (NO). The results suggested that DEHP could induce an increase in ACE levels, and a decrease in bradykinin levels. Moreover, BK2R, Ca²⁺, eNOS and NO decreased when mice were exposed to 10 mg/kg/day DEHP. Interestingly, 5 mg/kg/day angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) treatment inhibited the increase in blood pressure, and inhibited the decrease in the levels of BK2R, Ca²⁺, eNOS, and NO, that were induced by DEHP exposure. Our results suggest that DEHP might increase blood pressure by activating ACE expression, and inhibiting the bradykinin-NO pathway.

Exposure to diisononyl phthalate induced an increase in blood pressure through activation of the ACE/ AT1R axis and inhibition of NO production

Recent epidemiological studies have found that diisononyl phthalate (DINP) is associated with an increase in blood pressure. However, this correlation had not been clarified, nor has the underlying mechanism been characterized. In this study, C57/BL6 mice were exposed to DINP doses of 0.15 mg/kg/day, 1.5 mg/kg/day or 15 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks. Dexamethasone (DEXA) was used to build the hypertension model. After DINP exposure and 1 mg/kg/day DEXA treatment, the levels of systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean blood pressure (MBP) and heart rate (HR) were determined, and any histopathological changes in hypertension targeted organs of the mice were investigated. The results suggest that DINP exposure and DEXA treatment induced marked increases in SBP, DBP, and MBP, and that 15 mg/kg/day DINP exposure could also increase the HR level. Along with the blood pressure increase, DINP exposure induced pathological changes to the heart, aorta, and kidney. To explore the underlying mechanism, we measured the expression of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), angiotensin-II type 1 receptor (AT1R) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in the aorta, as well as the nitric oxide (NO) concentration in serum. The data suggest that DINP exposure and DEXA treatment enhance the expression of ACE and AT1R, and inhibit eNOS expression and NO production. Interestingly, treatment with 5 mg/kg/day ACE inhibitor (ACEI) alleviated the increase in blood pressure induced by DINP exposure and DEXA treatment. These findings expand our understanding of how DINP exposure impacts the development of hypertension, and elucidates the underlying mechanisms.

Lactobacillus plantarum TW1-1 Alleviates Diethylhexylphthalate-Induced Testicular Damage in Mice by Modulating Gut Microbiota and Decreasing Inflammation

Diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP), acting as an endocrine disruptor, disturbed reproductive health. Here, we evaluated the effects of Lactobacillus plantarum TW1-1 (L. plantarum TW1-1) on DEHP-induced testicular damage in adult male mice. Results showed that oral supplementation of L. plantarum TW1-1 significantly increased the serum testosterone concentration, enhanced the semen quality, and attenuated gonad development defects in DEHP-exposed mice. L. plantarum TW1-1 also alleviated DEHP-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses by decreasing the mRNA expression and serum protein concentration of different inflammatory factors [tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6]. Furthermore, L. plantarum TW1-1 significantly reduced DEHP-induced intestinal hyper-permeability and the increase in the serum lipopolysaccharide level. Gut microbiota diversity analysis revealed that L. plantarum TW1-1 shifted the DEHP-disrupted gut microbiota to that of the control mice. At phylum level, L. plantarum TW1-1 reversed DEHP-induced Bacteroidetes increase and Firmicutes decrease, and restored Deferribacteres in DEHP-exposed mice. Spearman's correlation analysis showed that Bacteroidetes, Deferribacteres, and Firmicutes were associated with DEHP-induced testicular damage. In addition, the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (Firm/Bac ratio) significantly decreased from 0.28 (control group) to 0.13 (DEHP-exposed group), which was restored by L. plantarum TW1-1 treatment. Correlation analysis showed that the Firm/Bac ratio was negatively correlated with testicular damage and inflammation. These findings suggest that L. plantarum TW1-1 prevents DEHP-induced testicular damage via modulating gut microbiota and decreasing inflammation.

Effect of gemfibrozil on cardiotoxicity induced by doxorubicin in male experimental rats

Cardiotoxicity is an adverse effect of the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). Gemfibrozil (GEM) is a lipid-lowering drug with a number of biological properties such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Therefore, we decided to investigate the effect of GEM on DOX-induced cardiotoxicity in rats. Twenty-eight adult male Wistar rats were divided into four experimental groups as follows: Group I received normal saline (2 ml/kg) orally for 14 days, group II received DOX (2.5 mg/kg; in six injections; accumulative dose: 15 mg/kg) intraperitonially for 14 days, group III received DOX + GEM (100 mg/kg) orally for 14 days concomitantly with DOX administration, and group IV received GEM orally for 14 days. Lipid panel, various biochemical biomarkers, and histological observations were evaluated in serum and heart samples. According to our results, DOX significantly increased the levels of lipid panel (triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoproteins cholesterol) as well as markers of cardiac dysfunction (Aspartate aminotransferase, Creatine kinase-muscle/brain, Lactate dehydrogenase and Cardiac Troponin I). Moreover, DOX significantly increased malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels in cardiac tissue. Furthermore, administration of DOX reduced the level of glutathione as well as the superoxide dismutase, catalase, and Glutathione peroxidase activities. DOX-treated rats showed significantly higher tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β. GEM administration significantly attenuated the lipid panel and biochemical biomarkers in DOX-treated rats. Our results were confirmed by histopathological evaluations of the heart. Based on our findings, GEM is a promising cardioprotective agent in patients treated with DOX through mitigative effects on biochemical markers and oxidative stress indices.