Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) inhibits pro-angiogenic effects of breast cancer cells via down-regulating cellular and exosomal expression of angiogenic genes and microRNAs

Metabolomics and miRNA profiling reveals feature of gallbladder cancer-derived biliary extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Although there are several studies in the development of various human cancers, the role of exosomes is poorly understood in the progression of gallbladder cancer. This study aims to characterize the metabolic changes occurring in exosomes obtained from patients with gallbladder cancer compared with those from other gallbladder disease groups.

METHODS

Biliary exosomes were isolated from healthy donors (n = 3) and from patients with gallbladder cancer (n = 3), gallbladder polyps (n = 4), or cholecystitis (n = 3) using a validated exosome isolation kit. Afterward, we performed miRNA profiling and untargeted metabolomic analysis of the exosomes. The results were validated by integrating the results of the miRNA and metabolomic analyses.

RESULTS

The gallbladder cancer group exhibited a significant reduction in the levels of multiple unsaturated phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylcholines compared to the normal group, which resulted in the loss of exosome membrane integrity. Additionally, the gallbladder cancer group demonstrated significant overexpression of miR-181c and palmitic acid, and decreased levels of conjugated deoxycholic acid, all of which are strongly associated with the activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate that the contents of exosomes are disease-specific, particularly in gallbladder cancer, and that altered metabolites convey critical information regarding their phenotype. We believe that our metabolomic and miRNA profiling results may provide important insights into the development of gallbladder cancer.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) impairs hypoxia-induced cellular and exosomal overexpression of immune-checkpoints and immunomodulatory molecules in different subtypes of breast cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Tumor cells express immune-checkpoint molecules to suppress anti-tumor immune responses. In part, immune evasion takes place by secreting exosomes bearing immune-checkpoint and immunomodulatory molecules and their inducing and/or regulating agents e.g., microRNAs (miRs). This study aimed to evaluate the effects of omega-3 fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), on the expression of some selected immune-checkpoint and immunomodulatory molecules and their regulating miRs under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions in triple negative (TNBC) invasive and triple positive non-invasive breast cancer cell lines.

METHODS

MDA-MB-231 and BT-474 cells were treated with 100 µM DHA under hypoxic and normoxic conditions for 24 h. Exosomes were isolated by ultracentrifuge and confirmed by electron microscope and anti-CD9, -CD63, -CD81 immunoblotting. Total RNA from cells and exosomes were extracted and expression of CD39, CD73, CD47, CD80, PD-L1, B7-H3, B7-H4 genes and their related miRs were evaluated by quantitative Real-time PCR.

RESULTS

This study showed significant over-expression of immune-checkpoint and immunomodulatory molecules under hypoxic condition. Treatment with DHA resulted in a significant decrease in immune-checkpoint and immunomodulatory molecule expression as well as an upregulation of their regulatory miRNA expression.

CONCLUSION

DHA supplementation may be utilized in breast cancer therapy for down-regulation of cellular and exosomal immune escape-related molecules.

Unraveling the Multifaceted Roles of Extracellular Vesicles: Insights into Biology, Pharmacology, and Pharmaceutical Applications for Drug Delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles released from various cell types that have emerged as powerful new therapeutic option for a variety of diseases. EVs are involved in the transmission of biological signals between cells and in the regulation of a variety of biological processes, highlighting them as potential novel targets/platforms for therapeutics intervention and/or delivery. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate new aspects of EVs' biogenesis, biodistribution, metabolism, and excretion as well as safety/compatibility of both unmodified and engineered EVs upon administration in different pharmaceutical dosage forms and delivery systems. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of essential physiological and pathological roles of EVs in different organs and organ systems. We provide an overview regarding application of EVs as therapeutic targets, therapeutics, and drug delivery platforms. We also explore various approaches implemented over the years to improve the dosage of specific EV products for different administration routes.

Small extracellular vesicle TGF-β in cancer progression and immune evasion

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a well-known cytokine that controls various processes in normal physiology and disease context. Strong preclinical and clinical literature supports the crucial roles of the TGF-β in several aspects of cancer biology. Recently emerging evidence reveals that the release of TGF-β from tumor/immune/stromal cells in small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) plays an important part in tumor development and immune evasion. Hence, this review aims to address the packaging, release, and signaling pathways of TGF-β carried in sEVs (sEV-TGF-β) in cancer, and to explore its underpinning roles in tumor development, growth, progression, metastasis, etc. We also highlight key progresses in deciphering the roles of sEV-TGF-β in subverting anti-tumor immune responses. The paper ends with a focus on the clinical significance of TGF-β carried in sEVs and draws attention to its diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic importance.

EV-miRNA-Mediated Intercellular Communication in the Breast Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer research has prioritized the study of the tumor microenvironment (TME) as a crucial area of investigation. Understanding the communication between tumor cells and the various cell types within the TME has become a focal point. Bidirectional communication processes between these cells support cellular transformation, as well as the survival, invasion, and metastatic dissemination of tumor cells. Extracellular vesicles are lipid bilayer structures secreted by cells that emerge as important mediators of this cell-to-cell communication. EVs transfer their molecular cargo, including proteins and nucleic acids, and particularly microRNAs, which play critical roles in intercellular communication. Tumor-derived EVs, for example, can promote angiogenesis and enhance endothelial permeability by delivering specific miRNAs. Moreover, adipocytes, a significant component of the breast stroma, exhibit high EV secretory activity, which can then modulate metabolic processes, promoting the growth, proliferation, and migration of tumor cells. Comprehensive studies investigating the involvement of EVs and their miRNA cargo in the TME, as well as their underlying mechanisms driving tumoral capacities, are necessary for a deeper understanding of these complex interactions. Such knowledge holds promise for the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in cancer treatment.

Deciphering the Functional Status of Breast Cancers through the Analysis of Their Extracellular Vesicles

Breast cancer (BC) accounts for the highest incidence of tumor-related mortality among women worldwide, justifying the growing search for molecular tools for the early diagnosis and follow-up of BC patients under treatment. Circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous nanocompartments produced by all human cells, including tumor cells. Since minimally invasive methods collect EVs, which represent reservoirs of signals for cell communication, these particles have attracted the interest of many researchers aiming to improve BC screening and treatment. Here, we analyzed the cargoes of BC-derived EVs, both proteins and nucleic acids, which yielded a comprehensive list of potential markers divided into four distinct categories, namely, (i) modulation of aggressiveness and growth; (ii) preparation of the pre-metastatic niche; (iii) epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; and (iv) drug resistance phenotype, further classified according to their specificity and sensitivity as vesicular BC biomarkers. We discuss the therapeutic potential of and barriers to the clinical implementation of EV-based tests, including the heterogeneity of EVs and the available technologies for analyzing their content, to present a consistent, reproducible, and affordable set of markers for further evaluation.

Extracellular vesicles in the treatment and diagnosis of breast cancer: a status update

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in women. Currently, the treatment of breast cancer is limited by the lack of effectively targeted therapy and patients often suffer from higher severity, metastasis, and resistance. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) consist of lipid bilayers that encapsulate a complex cargo, including proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites. These bioactive cargoes have been found to play crucial roles in breast cancer initiation and progression. Moreover, EV cargoes play pivotal roles in converting mammary cells to carcinogenic cells and metastatic foci by extensively inducing proliferation, angiogenesis, pre-metastatic niche formation, migration, and chemoresistance. The present update review mainly discusses EVs cargoes released from breast cancer cells and tumor-derived EVs in the breast cancer microenvironment, focusing on proliferation, metastasis, chemoresistance, and their clinical potential as effective biomarkers.

The Potential of DHA as Cancer Therapy Strategies: A Narrative Review of In Vitro Cytotoxicity Trials

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), also known as omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), is a natural compound that has demonstrated pharmacological activity against several malignant neoplasms. Available cancer treatments cause side effects, affect healthy cells, reduce the quality of life of patients and may cause resistance to antineoplastics. For these reasons, the search for new therapies is continuous. This narrative review aimed to compile information on in vitro experiments that study the cytotoxic effect of DHA or molecules derived from DHA in tumor and nontumor cells. This was performed to highlight the potential of DHA as a strategy for cancer therapy and to gather information, which will help researchers plan experimental designs and develop research to discover effective therapies against cancer. In addition, studies were presented that demonstrate the dose of DHA that can treat patients with cancer. Thus, a search was conducted for articles on the SCOPUS and Web of Science platforms, published until 2022, that analyzed the action of DHA against breast, lung, colorectal, prostate, stomach and liver cancers. Cytotoxic effects were observed in tumor and nontumor cell lines, and these results varied with the type of cell line studied, drug concentration, incubation time and treatment combination, i.e., with DHA alone, combined with other drugs and with molecules derived from DHA. In patients with cancer, in all analyzed studies, DHA intake was associated with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and/or proteins to aid chemotherapy, and with this procedure, tumor reduction, chemotherapy tolerance and muscle mass gain were obtained. This work contributes to the community by demonstrating the possible applicability of DHA in the pharmaceutical area of oncological therapies.

Docosahexaenoic Acid, a Key Compound for Enhancing Sensitization to Drug in Doxorubicin-Resistant MCF-7 Cell Line

Drug resistance is a well-known and significant obstacle in the battle against cancer, rendering chemotherapy treatments often ineffective. To improve the effectiveness of chemotherapy, researchers are exploring the use of natural molecules that can enhance its ability to kill cancer cells and limit their spread. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a lipid found in marine fish, has been shown to enhance the cytotoxicity of various anti-cancer drugs in vitro and in vivo. While the combined use of chemotherapeutic drugs with DHA demonstrated promising preliminary results in clinical trials, there is still a significant amount of information to be discovered regarding the precise mechanism of action of DHA. As the biological pathways involved in the chemosensitization of already chemoresistant MCF-7 cells are still not entirely unraveled, in this study, we aimed to investigate whether DHA co-treatment could enhance the ability of the chemotherapy drug doxorubicin to inhibit the growth and invasion of MCF-7 breast cancer cells (MCF-7/Dox) that had become resistant to the drug. Upon treating MCF-7/Dox cells with DHA or DHA-doxorubicin, it was observed that the DHA-doxorubicin combination effectively enhanced cancer cell death by impeding in vitro propagation and invasive ability. In addition, it led to an increase in doxorubicin accumulation and triggered apoptosis by arresting the cell cycle at the G2/M phase. Other observed effects included a decrease in the multi-drug resistance (MDR) carrier P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and TG2, a tumor survival factor. Augmented quantities of molecules promoting apoptosis such as Bak1 and caspase-3 and enhanced lipid peroxidation were also detected. Our findings in the cell model suggest that DHA can be further investigated as a natural compound to be used alongside doxorubicin in the treatment of breast cancer that is unresponsive to chemotherapy.

Exosomal cargos-mediated metabolic reprogramming in tumor microenvironment

Metabolic reprogramming is one of the hallmarks of cancer. As nutrients are scarce in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor cells adopt multiple metabolic adaptations to meet their growth requirements. Metabolic reprogramming is not only present in tumor cells, but exosomal cargos mediates intercellular communication between tumor cells and non-tumor cells in the TME, inducing metabolic remodeling to create an outpost of microvascular enrichment and immune escape. Here, we highlight the composition and characteristics of TME, meanwhile summarize the components of exosomal cargos and their corresponding sorting mode. Functionally, these exosomal cargos-mediated metabolic reprogramming improves the "soil" for tumor growth and metastasis. Moreover, we discuss the abnormal tumor metabolism targeted by exosomal cargos and its potential antitumor therapy. In conclusion, this review updates the current role of exosomal cargos in TME metabolic reprogramming and enriches the future application scenarios of exosomes.

The Effects of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Breast Cancer as a Preventive Measure or as an Adjunct to Conventional Treatments

In order to understand how omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (ω-3 PUFA) supplements affect breast cancer prevention and treatment, a systematic review of articles published in the last 5 years in two databases was performed. Of the 679 articles identified, only 27 were included and examined based on five topics, taking into account: the induction type of the breast cancer used in animal models; the characteristics of the induction model by cell transplantation; the experimental design of the ω-3 supplementation—combined or not with a treatment antitumor drug; the fatty acids (FAs) composition used; the analysis of the studies’ outcomes. There are diverse and well-established animal models of breast cancer in the literature, with very relevant histological and molecular similarities depending on the specific objective of the study, such as whether the method of tumor induction was transgenic, by cell transplantation, or by oncogenic drugs. The analyses of outcomes were mainly focused on monitoring tumor growth, body/tumor weight, and molecular, genetic, or histological analyses, and few studies evaluated latency, survival, or metastases. The best results occurred when supplementation with ω-3 PUFA was associated with antitumor drugs, especially in the analysis of metastases and volume/weight of tumors or when the supplementation was started early and maintained for a long time. However, the beneficial effect of ω-3 PUFA supplementation when not associated with an antitumor agent remains unclear.

Nutraceutical-Based Nanoformulations for Breast and Ovarian Cancer Treatment

Different strategies have been investigated for a more satisfactory treatment of advanced breast cancer, including the adjuvant use of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). These nutritional compounds have been shown to possess potent anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic activities, the capacity to affect transduction pathways/receptors involved in cell growth and to reprogram tumor microenvironment. Omega-3 PUFA-containing nanoformulations designed for drug delivery in breast cancer were shown to potentiate the effects of enclosed drugs, enhance drug delivery to target sites, and minimize drug-induced side effects. We have critically analyzed here the results of the most recent studies investigating the effects of omega-3 PUFA-containing nanoformulations in breast cancer. The anti-neoplastic efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs has also been convincingly demonstrated by using preclinical in vivo models of ovarian cancer. The results obtained are critically analyzed here and seem to provide a sufficient rationale to move to still lacking interventional clinical trials, as well as to evaluate possible advantages of enclosing omega-3 PUFAs to drug-delivery nanosystems for ovarian cancer. Future perspectives in this area are also provided.

Natural products exert anti-tumor effects by regulating exosomal ncRNA

Currently, more than 60% of the approved anti-cancer drugs come from or are related to natural products. Natural products and exosomal non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) exert anti-cancer effects through various regulatory mechanisms, which are of great research significance. Exosomes are a form of intercellular communication and contain ncRNAs that can act as intercellular signaling molecules involved in the metabolism of tumor cells. This review exemplifies some examples of natural products whose active ingredients can play a role in cancer prevention and treatment by regulating exosomal ncRNAs, with the aim of illustrating the mechanism of action of exosomal ncRNAs in cancer prevention and treatment. Meanwhile, the application of exosomes as natural drug delivery systems and predictive disease biomarkers in cancer prevention and treatment is introduced, providing research ideas for the development of novel anti-tumor drugs.

The effect of osteoporotic and non-osteoporotic individuals' T cell-derived exosomes on osteoblast cells' bone remodeling related genes expression and alkaline phosphatase activity

Objectives

Osteoporosis is a common skeletal disorder attributed to age and is defined as a systematic degradation of bone mass and the microarchitecture leading to bone fractures. Exosomes have been reported in almost all biological fluids and during the failure of bone remodeling. 20 ml of blood samples were obtained from osteoporotic and non-osteoporotic postmenopausal women. After the isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), T cells were separated via the magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) technique. Exosomes were driven from T cells of non-osteoporotic and osteoporotic volunteers. Subsequently, normal osteoblasts were treated with obtained T cell exosomes to assess osteoblastic function and gene expression.

Results

Runx2, type I collagen, osteopontin, and osteocalcin expression decreased in osteoblasts treated by osteoporotic T cell exosomes. In contrast, an increased expression of the mentioned genes was observed following non-osteoporotic T cell exosome treatment. Additionally, osteoblast alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity treated with non-osteoporotic T cell exosomes increased. However, this activity decreased in another group. Our data demonstrated that T cell exosomes obtained from osteoporotic and non-osteoporotic individuals could alter the osteoblastic function and gene expression by affecting the genes essential for bone remodeling.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-022-06139-4.

Paediatric pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukaemia-derived exosomes regulate immune function in human T cells

Exosomes derived from solid tumour cells are involved in immune suppression, angiogenesis and metastasis; however, the role of leukaemia‐derived exosomes has less been investigated. Hence, changes in immune response‐related genes and human T cells apoptosis co‐incubated with exosomes isolated from patients' pre‐B cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia were evaluated in this in vitro study. Vein blood sample was obtained from each newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) patient prior any therapy. ALL serum exosomes were isolated by ultrafiltration and characterized using Western blotting and transmission electron microscopy. Exosomes were then co‐incubated with T lymphocytes and the gene expressions, as well as functions of human T cells were quantified by qRT‐PCR. Apoptosis and caspase‐3 and caspase‐9 protein expression were also evaluated by flowcytometry and Western blotting analysis, respectively. Exosomes isolated from ALL patients affected T lymphocytes and elevated the apoptosis. Moreover, these exosomes altered the T cells profile into regulatory type by increasing the expression of FOXP3 and Tregs‐related cytokines, including TGF‐B and IL‐10. The expression level of Th17‐related transcription factors (RoRγt) and interleukins (IL‐17 and IL‐23) decreased after this treatment. According to our findings, exosomes derived from ALL patients' sera carry immunosuppressive molecules, indicating the possible effect of exosomes as liquid biomarkers for cancer staging.

Contribution of n-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids to the Prevention of Breast Cancer Risk Factors

Nowadays, diet and breast cancer are studied at different levels, particularly in tumor prevention and progression. Thus, the molecular mechanisms leading to better knowledge are deciphered with a higher precision. Among the molecules implicated in a preventive and anti-progressive way, n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFAs) are good candidates. These molecules, like docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acids, are generally found in marine material, such as fat fishes or microalgae. EPA and DHA act as anti-proliferative, anti-invasive, and anti-angiogenic molecules in breast cancer cell lines, as well as in in vivo studies. A better characterization of the cellular and molecular pathways involving the action of these fatty acids is essential to have a realistic image of the therapeutic avenues envisaged behind their use. This need is reinforced by the increase in the number of clinical trials involving more and more n-3 LC-PUFAs, and this, in various pathologies ranging from obesity to a multitude of cancers. The objective of this review is, therefore, to highlight the new elements showing the preventive and beneficial effects of n-3 LC-PUFAs against the development and progression of breast cancer.

Extracellular vesicles extracted from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells carrying MicroRNA-342-3p inhibit the INHBA/IL13Rα2 axis to suppress the growth and metastasis of breast cancer

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BMSC-EVs carrying miR-342-3p could prevent breast cancer growth and metastasis by downregulating the INHBA/IL13Rα2 axis, highlighting a potential target for anti-cancer treatment for breast cancer.

Increasing focus has come to the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in various cancers. Hence, we designed this study to explore the mechanism whereby microRNA-342-3p (miR-342-3p)-containing EVs derived from BMSCs might affect breast cancer. MCF-7 breast cancer cell line was co-incubated with the EVs isolated from rat BMSCs, followed by alteration of miR-342-3p and INHBA expression. Microarray-based analyses predicted a possible regulatory mechanism involving miR-342-3p, INHBA, and IL13Rα2 in breast cancer, which was verified by luciferase reporter, RNA pull-down, and RIP assays. Besides, in order to evaluate the effects of miR-342-3p on the biological features of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, we employed the scratch assay, Transwell assay, CCK-8 assay, and nude mouse tumorigenicity assay. miR-342-3p carried by BMSC-EVs was transferred into breast cancer cells through co-culture, which inhibited the proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer cells in vitro. miR-342-3p downregulated the expression of INHBA, which further repressed the expression of IL13Rα2. Finally, the in vivo experimental results revealed the inhibitory role of miR-342-3p in tumor growth and metastasis in nude mice. To sum up, BMSC-EVs carrying miR-342-3p could prevent breast cancer growth and metastasis by downregulating the INHBA/IL13Rα2 axis, highlighting a potential target for anti-cancer treatment for breast cancer.

Targeting Angiogenesis in Breast Cancer: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives of Novel Anti-Angiogenic Approaches

Angiogenesis is a vital process for the growth and dissemination of solid cancers. Numerous molecular pathways are known to drive angiogenic switch in cancer cells promoting the growth of new blood vessels and increased incidence of distant metastasis. Several angiogenesis inhibitors are clinically available for the treatment of different types of advanced solid cancers. These inhibitors mostly belong to monoclonal antibodies or small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors targeting the classical vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors. Nevertheless, breast cancer is one example of solid tumors that had constantly failed to respond to angiogenesis inhibitors in terms of improved survival outcomes of patients. Accordingly, it is of paramount importance to assess the molecular mechanisms driving angiogenic signaling in breast cancer to explore suitable drug targets that can be further investigated in preclinical and clinical settings. This review summarizes the current evidence for the effect of clinically available anti-angiogenic drugs in breast cancer treatment. Further, major mechanisms associated with intrinsic or acquired resistance to anti-VEGF therapy are discussed. The review also describes evidence from preclinical and clinical studies on targeting novel non-VEGF angiogenic pathways in breast cancer and several approaches to the normalization of tumor vasculature by targeting pericytes, utilization of microRNAs and extracellular tumor-associate vesicles, using immunotherapeutic drugs, and nanotechnology.

Bioinformatics Analysis Reveals the Related Role of miR-511-5p in the Progression of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer remains a dangerous disease, and delving the molecular mechanism of breast cancer is still necessary. To illustrate the role of miR-511-5p, TCGA database was used to excavate the abundance of miR-511-5p, and the miR-511-5p level was measured in the pathological tissues and tumor cell lines. Moreover, the targets of miR-511-5p were identified with miRDIP and GEPIA and then were used for functional enrichment analysis. Besides, the targets of miR-511-5p were analyzed with the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network for the hub nodes, and then the expression levels of the hub nodes were visualized with the GEPIA database. The results showed that miR-511-5p was significantly downregulated in multiple types of tumor samples in the online database, and the downregulated miR-511-5p was also found in pathological tissues and tumor cell lines. Moreover, 48 genes were identified as the potential targets of miR-511-5p by miRDIP and GEPIA databases and enriched in cell cycle, PI3K/AKT, and P53 pathways. Besides, seven genes including BRCA1, FN1, CCNE1, CCND1, CHEK1, BUB3, and CDC25A were identified as the hub nodes by the PPI network, and CCNE1 and CHEK1 were confirmed to be related with the prognostic survival of the patients with breast cancer. In conclusion, the proofs in this study suggest that reduced miR-511-5p was a biomarker event for breast cancer, and CCNE1 and CHEK1 served as potential targets of miR-511-5p to involve the progression of breast cancer.

Understanding the function and regulation of Sox2 for its therapeutic potential in breast cancer

Sox family of transcriptional factors play essential functions in development and are implicated in multiple clinical disorders, including cancer. Sox2 being their most prominent member and performing a critical role in reprogramming differentiated adult cells to an embryonic phenotype is frequently upregulated in multiple cancers. High Sox2 levels are detected in breast tumor tissues and correlate with a worse prognosis. In addition, Sox2 expression is connected with resistance to conventional anticancer therapy. Together, it can be said that inhibiting Sox2 expression can reduce the malignant features associated with breast cancer, including invasion, migration, proliferation, stemness, and chemoresistance. This review highlights the critical roles played by the Sox gene family members in initiating or suppressing breast tumor development, while primarily focusing on Sox2 and its role in breast tumor initiation, maintenance, and progression, elucidates the probable mechanisms that control its activity, and puts forward potential therapeutic strategies to inhibit its expression.

Malignant Melanoma-Derived Exosomes Induce Endothelial Damage and Glial Activation on a Human BBB Chip Model

Malignant melanoma is a type of highly aggressive tumor, which has a strong ability to metastasize to brain, and 60-70% of patients die from the spread of the tumor into the central nervous system. Exosomes are a type of nano-sized vesicle secreted by most living cells, and accumulated studies have reported that they play crucial roles in brain tumor metastasis, such as breast cancer and lung cancer. However, it is unclear whether exosomes also participate in the brain metastasis of malignant melanoma. Here, we established a human blood-brain barrier (BBB) model by co-culturing human brain microvascular endothelial cells, astrocytes and microglial cells under a biomimetic condition, and used this model to explore the potential roles of exosomes derived from malignant melanoma in modulating BBB integrity. Our findings showed that malignant melanoma-derived exosomes disrupted BBB integrity and induced glial activation on the BBB chip. Transcriptome analyses revealed dys-regulation of autophagy and immune responses following tumor exosome treatment. These studies indicated malignant melanoma cells might modulate BBB integrity via exosomes, and verified the feasibility of a BBB chip as an ideal platform for studies of brain metastasis of tumors in vitro.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated transport: Reprogramming a tumor microenvironment conducive with breast cancer progression and metastasis

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Extracellular vesicles’ (EVs) role in breast tumor microenvironment and pre-metastatic niche development.

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Breast cancer EV-mediated transmission of pro-metastatic and drug-resistant phenotypes.

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Precision medicine with EVs as biomarkers and delivery vehicles for drug and anticancer genetic material.

Breast cancer metastatic progression to critical secondary sites is the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality in women. While existing therapies are highly effective in combating primary tumors, metastatic disease is generally deemed incurable with a median survival of only 2, 3 years. Extensive efforts have focused on identifying metastatic contributory targets for therapeutic antagonism and prevention to improve patient survivability. Excessive breast cancer release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), whose contents stimulate a metastatic phenotype, represents a promising target. Complex breast cancer intercellular communication networks are based on EV transport and transference of molecular information is in bulk resulting in complete reprogramming events within recipient cells. Other breast cancer cells can acquire aggressive phenotypes, endothelial cells can be induced to undergo tubule formation, and immune cells can be neutralized. Recent advancements continue to implicate the critical role EVs play in cultivating a tumor microenvironment tailored to cancer proliferation, metastasis, immune evasion, and conference of drug resistance. This literature review serves to frame the role of EV transport in breast cancer progression and metastasis. The following five sections will be addressed: (1) Intercellular communication in developing a tumor microenvironment & pre-metastatic niche. (2) Induction of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). (3). Immune suppression & evasion. (4) Transmission of drug resistance mechanisms. (5) Precision medicine: clinical applications of EVs.

Nutraceuticals in the Mediterranean Diet: Potential Avenues for Breast Cancer Treatment

The traditional Mediterranean Diet constitutes a food model that refers to the dietary patterns of the population living in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the early 1960s. A huge volume of literature data suggests that the Mediterranean-style diet provides several dietary compounds that have been reported to exert beneficial biological effects against a wide spectrum of chronic illnesses, such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and cancer including breast carcinoma. Among bioactive nutrients identified as protective factors for breast cancer, natural polyphenols, retinoids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been reported to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and antitumoral properties. The multiple anticancer mechanisms involved include the modulation of molecular events and signaling pathways associated with cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, migration, angiogenesis, antioxidant enzymes and immune responses. This review summarizes the anticancer action of some polyphenols, like resveratrol and epigallocatechin 3-gallate, retinoids and omega-3 PUFAs by highlighting the important hallmarks of cancer in terms of (i) cell cycle growth arrest, (ii) apoptosis, (iii) inflammation and (iv) angiogenesis. The data collected from in vitro and in vivo studies strongly indicate that these natural compounds could be the prospective candidates for the future anticancer therapeutics in breast cancer disease.

Up-regulation of KISS1 as a novel target of Let-7i in melanoma serves as a potential suppressor of migration and proliferation in vitro

Melanoma is a kind of skin cancer that is begun by the alteration of melanocytes. miRNAs are small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate a variety of biological processes. KISS1, the metastasis-suppressor gene, encodes kisspeptins which inhibits migration and proliferation of cancers. This study was aimed to determine the role of Let-7i and KISS1 in melanoma cell migration and proliferation. At first, the expression of Let-7i and KISS1 was determined in patients with melanoma. In the in vitro part of the study, Let-7i mimics were transfected and the impact of its restoration on target gene expression, proliferation, migration and apoptosis of SK-MEL-3 melanoma cell line was assessed by real-time PCR and Western blotting, MTT assay, wound-healing assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Besides, KISS1 inhibitor siRNA alone and along with Let-7i was transfected to determine their probable correlation. The results revealed that either Let-7i or KISS1 were down-regulated in patients with melanoma. The results obtained from the in vitro part of the study revealed that restoration of Let-7i reduced the expression of metastasis- and proliferation-related target genes. Moreover, it was revealed that up-regulation of Let-7i attenuated migration and proliferation capability of SK-MEL-3 cells. Besides, it was demonstrated that Let-7i restoration induced apoptosis in melanoma cells. More importantly, the KISS1 inhibitor caused a prominent cell migration and proliferation, attenuated by Let-7i re-expression. To sum up, the present study revealed the impressive role of Let-7i restoration along with its correlation with KISS1 on melanoma carcinogenicity which may be applicable in future in vivo studies.

Tumor-derived exosomal components: the multifaceted roles and mechanisms in breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently invasive malignancy and the leading cause of tumor-related mortality among women worldwide. Cancer metastasis is a complex, multistage process, which eventually causes tumor cells to colonize and grow at the metastatic site. Distant organ metastases are the major obstacles to the management of advanced BC patients. Notably, exosomes are defined as specialized membrane-enclosed extracellular vesicles with specific biomarkers, which are found in a wide variety of body fluids. Recent studies have demonstrated that exosomes are essential mediators in shaping the tumor microenvironment and BC metastasis. The transferred tumor-derived exosomes modify the capability of invasive behavior and organ-specific metastasis in recipient cells. BC exosomal components, mainly including noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), proteins, lipids, are the most investigated components in BC metastasis. In this review, we have emphasized the multifaceted roles and mechanisms of tumor-derived exosomes in BC metastasis based on these important components. The underlying mechanisms mainly include the invasion behavior change, tumor vascularization, the disruption of the vascular barrier, and the colonization of the targeted organ. Understanding the significance of tumor-derived exosomal components in BC metastasis is critical for yielding novel routes of BC intervention.

Therapeutic potential of AMPK signaling targeting in lung cancer: Advances, challenges and future prospects

Lung cancer (LC) is a leading cause of death worldwide with high mortality and morbidity. A wide variety of risk factors are considered for LC development such as smoking, air pollution and family history. It appears that genetic and epigenetic factors are also potential players in LC development and progression. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a signaling pathway with vital function in inducing energy balance and homeostasis. An increase in AMP:ATP and ADP:ATP ratio leads to activation of AMPK signaling by upstream mediators such as LKB1 and CamKK. Dysregulation of AMPK signaling is a common finding in different cancers, particularly LC. AMPK activation can significantly enhance LC metastasis via EMT induction. Upstream mediators such as PLAG1, IMPAD1, and TUFM can regulate AMPK-mediated metastasis. AMPK activation can promote proliferation and survival of LC cells via glycolysis induction. In suppressing LC progression, anti-tumor compounds including metformin, ginsenosides, casticin and duloxetine dually induce/inhibit AMPK signaling. This is due to double-edged sword role of AMPK signaling in LC cells. Furthermore, AMPK signaling can regulate response of LC cells to chemotherapy and radiotherapy that are discussed in the current review.

Nrf2 Signaling Pathway in Chemoprotection and Doxorubicin Resistance: Potential Application in Drug Discovery

Doxorubicin (DOX) is extensively applied in cancer therapy due to its efficacy in suppressing cancer progression and inducing apoptosis. After its discovery, this chemotherapeutic agent has been frequently used for cancer therapy, leading to chemoresistance. Due to dose-dependent toxicity, high concentrations of DOX cannot be administered to cancer patients. Therefore, experiments have been directed towards revealing underlying mechanisms responsible for DOX resistance and ameliorating its adverse effects. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling is activated to increase levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells to protect them against oxidative stress. It has been reported that Nrf2 activation is associated with drug resistance. In cells exposed to DOX, stimulation of Nrf2 signaling protects cells against cell death. Various upstream mediators regulate Nrf2 in DOX resistance. Strategies, both pharmacological and genetic interventions, have been applied for reversing DOX resistance. However, Nrf2 induction is of importance for alleviating side effects of DOX. Pharmacological agents with naturally occurring compounds as the most common have been used for inducing Nrf2 signaling in DOX amelioration. Furthermore, signaling networks in which Nrf2 is a key player for protection against DOX adverse effects have been revealed and are discussed in the current review.

New perspective toward nutritional support for malnourished cancer patients: Role of lipids

To improve the difficulties related to malnutrition, nutritional support has become an essential part of multidisciplinary comprehensive treatment for cancer. Lipids are essential nutrient source for the human body, and nowadays in clinical practices, it has a positive interventional effect on patients suffering from cancer. However, contribution of lipids in nutritional support of cancer patients is still poorly understood. Moreover, the sensory and physicochemical properties of lipids can severely restrict their applications in lipid-rich formula foods. In this review article, for the first time, we have presented a summary of the existing studies which were related to the associations between different lipids and improved malnutrition in cancer patients and discussed possible mechanisms. Subsequently, we discussed the challenges and effective solutions during processing of lipids into formula foods. Further, by considering existing problems in current lipid nutritional support, we proposed a novel method for the treatment of malnutrition, including developing individualized lipid nutrition for different patients depending on the individual's genotype and enterotype. Nonetheless, this review study provides a new direction for future research on nutritional support and the development of lipid-rich formula foods for cancer patients, and probably will help to improve the efficacy of lipids in the treatment of cancer malnutrition.

Lung cancer cells and their sensitivity/resistance to cisplatin chemotherapy: Role of microRNAs and upstream mediators

Cisplatin (CP) is a well-known chemotherapeutic agent with excellent clinical effects. The anti-tumor activity of CP has been demonstrated in different cancers such as breast, cervical, reproductive, lung, brain, and prostate cancers. However, resistance of cancer cells to CP chemotherapy has led to its failure in eradication of cancer cells, and subsequent death of patients with cancer. Fortunately, much effort has been put to identify molecular pathways and mechanisms involved in CP resistance/sensitivity. It seems that microRNAs (miRs) are promising candidates in mediating CP resistance/sensitivity, since they participate in different biological aspects of cells such as proliferation, migration, angiogenesis, and differentiation. In this review, we focus on miRs and their regulation in CP chemotherapy of lung cancer, as the most malignant tumor worldwide. Oncogenic miRs trigger CP resistance in lung cancer cells via targeting various pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin, Rab6, CASP2, PTEN, and Apaf-1. In contrast, onco-suppressor miRs inhibit oncogene pathways such as STAT3 to suppress CP resistance. These topics are discussed to determine the role of miRs in CP resistance/sensitivity. We also describe the upstream modulators of miRs such as lncRNAs, circRNAs, NF-κB, SOX2 and TRIM65 and their association with CP resistance/sensitivity in lung cancer cells. Finally, the effect of anti-tumor plant-derived natural compounds on miR expression during CP sensitivity of lung cancer cells is discussed.

Zinc, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin D: An essential combination for prevention and treatment of cancers

Zinc, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and vitamin D are essential nutrients for health, maturation and general wellbeing. Extensive literature searches have revealed the widespread similarity in molecular biological properties of zinc, ω-3 PUFAs and vitamin D, and their similar anti-cancer properties, even though they have different modes of action. These three nutrients are separately essential for good health, especially in the aged. Zinc, ω-3 PUFAs and vitamin D are inexpensive and safe as they are fundamentally natural and have the properties of correcting and inhibiting undesirable actions without disturbing the normal functions of cells or their extracellular environment. This review of the anticancer properties of zinc, ω-3 PUFAs and vitamin D is made in the context of the hallmarks of cancer. The anticancer properties of zinc, ω-3 PUFAs and vitamin D can therefore be used beneficially through combined treatment or supplementation. It is proposed that sufficiency of zinc, ω-3 PUFAs and vitamin D is a necessary requirement during chemotherapy treatment and that clinical trials can have questionable integrity if this sufficiency is not checked and maintained during efficacy trials.

Identification of NUF2 and FAM83D as potential biomarkers in triple-negative breast cancer

Background

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease. Compared with other subtypes of breast cancer, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is easy to metastasize and has a short survival time, less choice of treatment options. Here, we aimed to identify the potential biomarkers to TNBC diagnosis and prognosis.

Material/Methods

Three independent data sets (GSE45827, GSE38959, GSE65194) were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). The R software packages were used to integrate the gene profiles and identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). A variety of bioinformatics tools were used to explore the hub genes, including the DAVID database, STRING database and Cytoscape software. Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was used to verify the hub genes in 14 pairs of TNBC paired tissues.

Results

In this study, we screened out 161 DEGs between 222 non-TNBC and 126 TNBC samples, of which 105 genes were up-regulated and 56 were down-regulated. These DEGs were enriched for 27 GO terms and two pathways. GO analysis enriched mainly in “cell division”, “chromosome, centromeric region” and “microtubule motor activity”. KEGG pathway analysis enriched mostly in “Cell cycle” and “Oocyte meiosis”. PPI network was constructed and then 10 top hub genes were screened. According to the analysis results of the Kaplan-Meier survival curve, the expression levels of only NUF2, FAM83D and CENPH were associated with the recurrence-free survival in TNBC samples (P < 0.05). RT-qPCR confirmed that the expression levels of NUF2 and FAM83D in TNBC tissues were indeed up-regulated significantly.

Conclusions

The comprehensive analysis showed that NUF2 and FAM83D could be used as potential biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of TNBC.