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Lennon-Maslin M, Quaiser-Pohl CM. "It's Different for Girls!" The Role of Anxiety, Physiological Arousal, and Subject Preferences in Primary School Children's Math and Mental Rotation Performance. Behav Sci (Basel) 2024; 14:809. [PMID: 39336024 PMCID: PMC11429223 DOI: 10.3390/bs14090809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2024] [Revised: 09/06/2024] [Accepted: 09/11/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: This study examines the role of subjective anxiety (mathematics and spatial anxiety), along with physiological responses, in mathematics or math and mental rotation performance in 131 German primary school students (65 girls, 66 boys; Mean age = 8.73 years). (2) Method: Students' preference for math vs. German and their subjective anxiety were assessed using standardized questionnaires. Emotional reactivity was measured using the Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). Math performance was evaluated via percentage scored and completion times on number line estimation, word problems, and missing terms tasks. Spatial skills were assessed using a novel mental rotation task (nMRT) incorporating gender-congruent and -neutral stimuli. (3) Results: Girls outperformed boys on percentage scored on the math task but took longer to complete this. No gender differences were found in performance on the nMRT. Girls demonstrated higher math anxiety and were less likely to prefer math over German. Math anxiety predicted math scores and accuracy on the nMRT while gender predicted math performance and mental rotation response time. Subject preference was associated with longer completion times and emotional reactivity with longer response times. Girls' preference for math and lower emotional reactivity was linked to shorter completion times, while lower math anxiety predicted higher scores. In contrast, these factors did not affect boys' math performance. Additionally, subjective anxiety, emotional reactivity, or subject preference did not impact spatial performance for either gender. (4) Conclusions: Supporting mathematical self-efficacy and emotional regulation, especially in girls, is crucial for enhancing STEM outcomes in primary education. Gender-fair assessment in mental rotation reveals equitable spatial performance and reduces the impact of anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Lennon-Maslin
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Psychological Assessment, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Institute of Psychology, University of Koblenz, 56070 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Claudia Michaela Quaiser-Pohl
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Psychological Assessment, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Institute of Psychology, University of Koblenz, 56070 Koblenz, Germany
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2
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Ebert WM, Jost L, Jansen P. Gender stereotypes in preschoolers' mental rotation. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1284314. [PMID: 38375117 PMCID: PMC10875053 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1284314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The investigation of gender stereotypes constitutes a relevant approach to understanding the development of spatial ability and sex differences in the domain. This was the first study concerned with the presence of implicit and explicit gender stereotypes about spatial ability, and their potential relation to spatial task performance, in preschool-aged children. Our full sample consisted of 138 4- to 6-year-old kindergarten children. The experimental procedure consisted of three parts. Children completed an implicit association task, a short questionnaire on explicit stereotypes, and a chronometric mental rotation task. Preschool-aged children held explicit gender stereotypes about spatial ability linking it to boys rather than girls. Boys exhibited stronger stereotypes in this regard than girls. We also found evidence for the presence of implicit stereotypes. However, implicit stereotypes were not found in sub-group analyses. No clear relationship between stereotypes and mental rotation performance emerged, but our results suggest that implicit stereotyping affected mental rotation accuracy differently in girls compared with boys. Our main conclusion was that children already hold stereotypic beliefs about spatial ability at preschool age. There did not seem to be a relationship of stereotyping with spatial ability at this age.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Miro Ebert
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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3
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Rahe M, Jansen P. Does mindfulness help to overcome stereotype threat in mental rotation in younger and older adolescents? PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:624-635. [PMID: 35302181 PMCID: PMC9928811 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-022-01666-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We investigated gender differences in mental rotation performance in younger and older adolescents and effects of stereotype threat activation and a short mindfulness induction. Two hundred fifty younger adolescents from grades 5, 6, and 7 (119 boys) and 152 older adolescents from grades 10, 11, and 12 (80 boys) were divided into four groups with or without a mindfulness induction and with or without stereotype threat activation. All participants solved a mental rotation test and filled out a questionnaire about their gender stereotype beliefs and perceived abilities of masculine and feminine activities. Results illustrate that older adolescents outperformed younger adolescents, and gender differences in favor of males appeared only in the older age group. Independent of gender, the mindfulness induction had a significantly positive effect on adolescents' mental rotation performance that was significant only in the older age group. No effect of the stereotype activation was found. For gender stereotype beliefs and perceived abilities of gendered activities, the mindfulness intervention enhanced male stereotype beliefs and participants' perceived ability of masculine activities. A short mindfulness induction seems to have an enhancing effect on a subsequently performed stereotypically masculine cognitive task and consequently on adolescents' male stereotype beliefs and their perceived ability in masculine activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Rahe
- University of Koblenz-Landau, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 56070, Koblenz, Germany.
| | - Petra Jansen
- University of Regensburg, Universitaetsstrasse 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
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4
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Bartlett KA, Camba JD. Gender Differences in Spatial Ability: a Critical Review. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10648-023-09728-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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5
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Bauer R, Jost L, Jansen P. The effect of mindfulness and stereotype threat in mental rotation: a pupillometry study. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2021.1967366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Bauer
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Leonardo Jost
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Petra Jansen
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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6
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The effect of stereotype threat on females’ spatial perspective taking and the mediating role of executive functions. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01849-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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7
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Berkowitz M, Gerber A, Thurn CM, Emo B, Hoelscher C, Stern E. Spatial Abilities for Architecture: Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Assessment With Novel and Existing Spatial Ability Tests. Front Psychol 2021; 11:609363. [PMID: 33603693 PMCID: PMC7884773 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.609363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined individual differences in spatial abilities of architecture students. Students at different educational levels were assessed on spatial ability tests that varied in their domain-specificity to architecture, with the hypothesis that larger differences between beginner and advanced students will emerge on more domain-specific tests. We also investigated gender differences in test performance and controlled for general reasoning ability across analyses. In a cross sectional study, master students (N = 91) outperformed beginners (N = 502) on two novel tests involving perspective taking and object composition, as well as on a standardized visualization of cross-sections test, but not on a standardized mental rotations test. Longitudinally (N = 117), spatial performance improved after the first bachelor year on visualization of cross-sections, object composition and mental rotation. Although both genders showed higher spatial test performance with increased experience, male students outperformed females across tests and levels of education. The results overall confirmed improvements in spatial performance during architecture studies, with partial support for the domain-specificity hypothesis. A gender gap among advanced students calls for further examining architecture-specific spatial thinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Berkowitz
- Department of Humanities, Social and Political Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andri Gerber
- ZHAW School of Architecture, Design and Civil Engineering, Institute of Urban Landscape, Winterthur, Switzerland
| | - Christian M Thurn
- Department of Humanities, Social and Political Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beatrix Emo
- ZHAW School of Architecture, Design and Civil Engineering, Institute of Urban Landscape, Winterthur, Switzerland.,Department of Humanities, Social and Political Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Hoelscher
- Department of Humanities, Social and Political Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Elsbeth Stern
- Department of Humanities, Social and Political Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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8
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Nejati V. Effect of stimulus dimension on perception and cognition. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 212:103208. [PMID: 33220612 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Stimuli characteristics ha a decisive role in our perception and cognition. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of dimension of stimuli, two-dimensional (2D) versus three-dimensional (3D), on perception and working memory. In the first experiment, using the method of eye tracking, a higher blink rate, pupil size, and the number of saccade for three compared to 2D stimuli revealed a higher perceptual demand of 3D stimuli. In the second experiment, visual search task shows a higher response time for 3D stimuli and an equal performance with 2- and 3D stimuli in spatial working memory task. In the third experiment, four working memory tasks with high and low cognitive and perceptual load revealed 3D stimuli are memorized better in the both low and high load of working memory. We can conclude that 3D stimulus, compared 2D, imposes a higher load on perceptual system, but it is memorized better. It could be concluded that the phenomenon of filtering should occur in the early perceptual system for preventing overload.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Nejati
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
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9
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Alvarez-Vargas D, Abad C, Pruden SM. Spatial anxiety mediates the sex difference in adult mental rotation test performance. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2020; 5:31. [PMID: 32712746 PMCID: PMC7382671 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-020-00231-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Mental rotation ability is associated with successful advances in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education and occupations. Meta-analyses have shown consistent sex disparities in mental rotation, where men outperform women on one measure of mental rotation ability, the Mental Rotations Test (MRT). Spatial anxiety, or the fear and apprehension felt when completing a task that requires spatial thinking, was proposed as a mechanism explaining the relation between sex and mental rotation test performance. This study modified the Spatial Anxiety Scale (SAS) to include questions about how anxious individuals feel when they must mentally rotate items to accomplish a task (e.g., playing Tetris). An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to assess the factorial structure of the modified spatial anxiety scale. Three factor loadings were extracted representing the ability to navigate, mentally rotate objects, and visualize objects. Furthermore, we analyzed the role of spatial anxiety and trait anxiety as potential mediators of the relation between participant sex and mental rotation performance. Spatial anxiety partially mediated the link between the sex of the participants and the MRT performance controlling for trait anxiety. Only navigation and mental rotation anxiety significantly mediated the relation between participant sex and mental rotation performance. We posit spatial anxiety as a barrier to efficient and accurate spatial thinking, and suggest that reducing spatial anxiety has the potential to improve spatial skills and reduce sex differences in mental rotation test performance. To ascertain this, an experimental design can determine whether a reduction in spatial anxiety causes changes in mental rotation test scores.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carla Abad
- Psychology Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL USA
| | - Shannon M. Pruden
- Psychology Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL USA
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10
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Peper JS, Burke SM, Wierenga LM. Sex differences and brain development during puberty and adolescence. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 175:25-54. [PMID: 33008529 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in behavior, and whether these behavioral differences are related to sex differences in brain development, has been a longstanding topic of debate. Presumably, sex differences can provide critically important leads for explaining the etiology of various illnesses that show (i) large sex differences in prevalence and (ii) have an origin before or during adolescence. The general aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of scientific studies on sex differences in normative brain and behavioral development across puberty and adolescence, including the (sex) hormone-driven transition phase of puberty. Moreover, we describe the literature on brain and behavioral development in gender dysphoria, a severe and persistent incongruence between the self-identified gender and the assigned sex at birth. From the literature it becomes clear there is evidence for a specific link between pubertal maturation and developmental changes in arousal, motivation, and emotion. However, this link is rather similar between boys and girls. Moreover, although there is substantial evidence for sex differences in mean brain structure, these have not always been linked to sex differences in behavior, cognition, or psychopathology. Furthermore, there is little evidence for sex differences in brain development and thus, studies so far have been unable to explain sex differences in cognition. Suggestions for future research and methodologic considerations are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiska S Peper
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Sarah M Burke
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lara M Wierenga
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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11
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Rahe M, Quaiser-Pohl C. Mental-rotation performance in middle and high-school age: influence of stimulus material, gender stereotype beliefs, and perceived ability of gendered activities. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2019.1649265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martina Rahe
- Institute of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Koblenz, Germany
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12
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van Tetering M, van der Donk M, de Groot RHM, Jolles J. Sex Differences in the Performance of 7-12 Year Olds on a Mental Rotation Task and the Relation With Arithmetic Performance. Front Psychol 2019; 10:107. [PMID: 30761050 PMCID: PMC6364576 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluates boy-girl differences in 3D mental rotation in schoolchildren aged 7–12 years and the relation to arithmetic performance. A dedicated new task was developed: The Mental Rotation Task – Children (MRT-C). This task was applied to a large sample of 729 children. At the age of 7- to 9-years, a sex difference was found in the number of correct judgments made on the MRT-C. Boys performed better than girls. A closer look at the distribution of boys and girls in this age group showed that boys were overrepresented in the top performance quartile, whereas girls were overrepresented in the lowest performance quartile. A second finding was that higher mental rotation performance was significantly correlated to better mathematical achievement. This finding was done for boys, but not for girls. This correlation underscores the important role that spatial processing plays in mathematical achievement and has implications for school practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marleen van Tetering
- Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Centre for Brain and Learning, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marthe van der Donk
- Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Centre for Brain and Learning, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Renate Helena Maria de Groot
- Welten Institute, Research Centre for Learning, Teaching, and Technology, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, Netherlands
| | - Jelle Jolles
- Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Centre for Brain and Learning, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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13
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Ruthsatz V, Rahe M, Schürmann L, Quaiser-Pohl C. Girls’ Stuff, boys’ stuff and mental rotation: fourth graders rotate faster with gender-congruent stimuli. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2019.1567518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vera Ruthsatz
- Institute of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Martina Rahe
- Institute of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Linda Schürmann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Koblenz, Germany
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14
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Sanchis-Segura C, Aguirre N, Cruz-Gómez ÁJ, Solozano N, Forn C. Do Gender-Related Stereotypes Affect Spatial Performance? Exploring When, How and to Whom Using a Chronometric Two-Choice Mental Rotation Task. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1261. [PMID: 30087637 PMCID: PMC6066687 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is a common belief that males have superior visuospatial abilities and that differences in this and other cognitive domains (e.g., math) contribute to the reduced interest and low representation of girls and women in STEM education and professions. However, previous studies show that gender-related implicit associations and explicit beliefs, as well as situational variables, might affect cognitive performance in those gender-stereotyped domains and produce between-gender spurious differences. Therefore, the present study aimed to provide information on when, how and who might be affected by the situational reactivation of stereotypic gender-science beliefs/associations while performing a 3D mental rotation chronometric task (3DMRT). More specifically, we assessed the explicit beliefs and implicit associations (by the Implicit Association Test) held by female and male students of humanities and STEM majors and compared their performance in a 3DMRT after receiving stereotype- congruent, incongruent and nullifying experimental instructions. Our results show that implicit stereotypic gender-science associations correlate with 3DMRT performance in both females and males, but that inter-gender differences emerge only under stereotype-reactivating conditions. We also found that changes in self-confidence mediate these instructions’ effects and that academic specialization moderates them, hence promoting 3DMRT performance differences between male and female humanities, but not STEM, students. Taken together, these observations suggest that the common statement “males have superior mental rotation abilities” simplifies a much more complex reality and might promote stereotypes which, in turn, might induce artefactual performance differences between females and males in such tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Sanchis-Segura
- Departamento de Psicologia Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Naiara Aguirre
- Departamento de Psicologia Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Álvaro J Cruz-Gómez
- Departamento de Psicologia Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Noemí Solozano
- Departamento de Psicologia Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Cristina Forn
- Departamento de Psicologia Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
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15
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Moè A. Mental rotation and mathematics: Gender-stereotyped beliefs and relationships in primary school children. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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16
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Lyons EM, Simms N, Begolli KN, Richland LE. Stereotype Threat Effects on Learning From a Cognitively Demanding Mathematics Lesson. Cogn Sci 2017; 42:678-690. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nina Simms
- Psychology Department Northwestern University
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17
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Vander Heyden KM, van Atteveldt NM, Huizinga M, Jolles J. Implicit and Explicit Gender Beliefs in Spatial Ability: Stronger Stereotyping in Boys than Girls. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1114. [PMID: 27507956 PMCID: PMC4960251 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in spatial ability are a seriously debated topic, given the importance of spatial ability for success in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and girls' underrepresentation in these domains. In the current study we investigated the presence of stereotypic gender beliefs on spatial ability (i.e., "spatial ability is for boys") in 10- and 12-year-old children. We used both an explicit measure (i.e., a self-report questionnaire) and an implicit measure (i.e., a child IAT). Results of the explicit measure showed that both sexes associated spatial ability with boys, with boys holding more male stereotyped attitudes than girls. On the implicit measure, boys associated spatial ability with boys, while girls were gender-neutral. In addition, we examined the effects of gender beliefs on spatial performance, by experimentally activating gender beliefs within a pretest-instruction-posttest design. We compared three types of instruction: boys are better, girls are better, and no sex differences. No effects of these gender belief instructions were found on children's spatial test performance (i.e., mental rotation and paper folding). The finding that children of this age already have stereotypic beliefs about the spatial capacities of their own sex is important, as these beliefs may influence children's choices for spatial leisure activities and educational tracks in the STEM domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin M. Vander Heyden
- Department of Educational Neuroscience, LEARN! Research Institute for Learning and Education, Vrije UniversiteitAmsterdam, Netherlands
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18
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Life on the Left. Laterality 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801239-0.00010-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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