Stepping and kicking behaviour during milking in relation to response in human–animal interaction test and clinical health in loose housed dairy cows

The Relationship between the Infrared Eye Temperature of Beef Cattle and Associated Biological Responses at High Environmental Temperatures

Cattle in regions with high ambient temperatures are at risk of heat stress. Early detection is important to allow action to be taken to minimise the risks to cattle exposed to thermal stress. This study aimed to investigate the impact of heat stress on IRT-Eye temperature and its association with the behavioural and physiological responses of heat-stressed Angus steers (n = 24) on finisher and or substituted diets. Overall, 2 cohorts of 12 Angus steers were individually housed in a climate-controlled facility to examine responses to heat stress when fed on a standard finisher diet, based on a high percentage of cereal grains, and on a substituted diet in which 8% of the grains were replaced by an isoenergetic amount of lucerne hay. Exposing feedlot cattle to hot environmental conditions increased IRT-Eye temperature, which had a strong association with behaviour and physiology. There was no evidence of differences between the different dietary cohorts. The cattle with increased IRT-Eye temperature showed stress-related responses, including a downward-facing head, ears directed backwards, and other indicators of heat stress such as increased panting, standing, and increased rumen temperature. The strong association of IRT-Eye temperature with stress-related behaviours, as well as with rumen temperature and panting behaviour, highlights the potential for IRT-Eye to be utilised as a non-invasive tool to assess cattle responses in hot conditions.

Effects of flow-responsive pulsation on teat tissue condition and milking performance in Holstein dairy cows

The objectives of this study were to assess the effect of a reduced liner-open phase applied through flow-responsive pulsation (FRP), as a method to provide supplemental stimulation, on teat tissue conditions and milking characteristics in dairy cows. In 2 switch-back trials, 156 Holstein cows milked 3 times daily were assigned to the FRP or conventional (CON) group in alternating sequences. Trial 1 lasted for 35 d and was split into 5 alternating 1-wk periods of FRP and CON. The duration of trial 2 was 84 d, consisting of 4 alternating 3-wk periods of FRP and CON. Premilking udder preparation for both groups consisted of predipping, forestripping, and wiping the teats. Upon milking unit attachment, the FRP cows were milked at a pulsation rate of 50 cycles/min and a pulsation ratio of 30:70 until the preset milk flow threshold of 0.5 kg/min was reached. When the threshold value of 0.5 kg/min was reached, the pulsation was automatically switched to milking mode, which consisted of a pulsation rate of 60 cycles/min and a pulsation ratio of 70:30. Cows in the CON group were milked by milking mode (pulsation rate, 60 cycles/min; pulsation ratio, 70:30) immediately after attachment of the milking unit. We assessed machine milking-induced short-term changes to the teat tissue by palpation and visual inspection during trial 1, and we assessed teat-end hyperkeratosis in trial 2. Electronic on-farm milk meters were used to assess milking characteristics: milk yield (kg/milking session), milking unit-on time (s), 2-min milk yield (kg), peak milk flow rate (kg/min), and duration of low milk flow rate (s). Generalized linear mixed models were used to analyze the effects of treatment on the outcome variables. The odds of machine milking-induced short-term changes to the teat tissue were lower for cows in the FRP group than for those in the CON group: odds ratio (95% CI) = 0.41 (0.31-0.55). There were no meaningful differences in the odds of teat-end hyperkeratosis between the FRP and CON groups: odds ratio (95% CI) = 1.05 (0.38-2.89). The LSM (95% CI) of milking characteristics in the FRP and CON groups were 14.3 (13.8-14.7) and 14.3 kg (13.8-14.7) for milk yield, respectively; 272 (264-281) and 270 s (262-278) for milking unit-on time, respectively; and 5.0 (4.8-5.1) and 4.9 kg/min (4.7-5.1) for peak milk flow rate, respectively. The FRP group had lower odds of bimodality than the CON group: odds ratio (95% CI) = 0.67 (0.61-0.74). In reference to CON, the odds ratios (95% CI) in FRP were 1.05 (0.76-1.46) for kick-off and 1.02 (0.85-1.23) for milking unit reattachment. In this study, cows that were milked using FRP had lower odds of postmilking short-term changes to the teat tissue and lower odds of bimodal milk flow. We conclude that FRP may foster adequate teat stimulation in cows before the initiation of milk harvest and has the potential to improve teat tissue conditions.

Dam-calf contact rearing in Switzerland: Aspects of management and milking

Cow-calf contact (CCC) rearing is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to the common practice of early separation of cow and calf in dairy management. Milkability can be impaired in nursing cows, which contributes to the loss of machine milk yield caused by calf intake, especially in pure dam-calf contact (DCC) systems. The aims of this study were (1) to describe the current status quo of DCC rearing regarding management and milking and (2) to evaluate the effects of DCC (suckling and milking vs. milking alone) and the effects of different types of DCC on milkability parameters, teat condition, and behavior during milking on Swiss DCC farms. By means of 17 telephone interviews with DCC farmers, we collected data on DCC management, housing, separation and weaning processes, milking procedures and techniques, and perceived milkability problems. Subsequently, we collected data on 10 of the interviewed DCC farms (183 cows): 4 DCC farms with a whole-day contact (WDC) system, 3 farms with DCC before milking (CBM), and 3 farms with DCC after milking (CAM). Five farms on which calves had no contact with dams were chosen as reference farms (178 cows). Using a milk flow meter, the occurrence of ejection disorders, bimodality of the milk flow curve, machine milk yield, duration of the decline phase, and duration of prestimulation were measured. The average mouthpiece chamber vacuum during the main milking phase and hind leg activity during milking were measured using a pressure sensor and an accelerometer, respectively. After cluster removal, the teat condition was evaluated, and a stripping milk sample was taken for fat content analysis. The interview results revealed that 8 of the 17 farms surveyed had a WDC system, and 2 farms operated a daytime DCC system. Contact before milking was applied by 3 farms, and 3 farms allowed CAM. On one farm, calves had access to dams 3 times a day. A great diversity in cow-calf management was found. In the on-farm data collection, 20 milkings of a total of 701 milkings examined met the criteria for a clear ejection disorder, with 17 of these observations occurring on WDC farms and none on reference farms. The stripping milk fat content was lower in nursing cows, indicating a lower degree of udder emptying. Machine milk yield was higher in nursing CAM cows than in nursing WDC and CBM cows. Farm types did not differ regarding teat condition, hind leg activity, or the occurrence of bimodal milk flow curves. In conclusion, the large variation in individual management approaches to DCC rearing even within DCC types, such as calf housing or cow breeds, implies caution when interpreting results. Contact after milking may be the system most beneficial for some productivity parameters, but adequate calf supply must be ensured. Higher amounts of milk remaining in the udder after cluster removal indicate that nursing can affect milkability, but future research should consider the effects of udder filling before milking to better interpret the fat content of stripping milk.

A note on dairy cow behavior when measuring enteric methane emissions with the GreenFeed emission monitoring system in tiestalls

Changes in the environment or novel procedures can result in altered cow behavior during data collection; training is often recommended to ensure accurate data is being recorded. Currently, little is known regarding the habituation of dairy cows during methane emission testing with the GreenFeed emission monitoring system (C-Lock Inc., Rapid City, SD), or how behavior relates to enteric methane emission measurements. Methane emissions were estimated from a total of 202 Holstein dairy cows (120-150 d in milk) housed in tiestalls as part of a larger project. Cows were tested on d 0 (training day) and d 1-5 (test day) for approximately 10 min, during which behavior was recorded by a trained observer. While cows spent more time with their head outside of the machine on the training day (d 0) than during the test days (d 1-5), the opposite pattern was observed for the number of leg movements. No differences in estimated methane production were found over the different days, though it was negatively correlated with both behaviors. These results highlight the importance of habituation of dairy cows to the GreenFeed system for methane measurements to minimize changes to cow behavior under tiestall conditions, whereas the methane emissions themselves are less affected. However, further research is needed to determine the impact of cow behavior on the reliability and repeatability of methane emission measurements as it may introduce bias in genetic evaluations for methane efficiency.

Behavioural Responses of Beef Cattle to Hot Conditions

Cattle are increasingly exposed to hot temperatures as a result of climate change, and a better understanding of behavioural responses could be beneficial for the diagnosis of heat loads. The changes in the positioning of key body parts, feeding behaviour, body maintenance, and respiratory dynamics were assessed in 24 Black Angus steers individually exposed to hot conditions and fed a finisher diet based on cereal grain or a substituted diet (8% of the grain replaced by an isoenergetic amount of lucerne hay). Increased respiration rate during the heat load period, compared to the recovery period, was associated with increased stepping, especially by left limbs. Cattle also reduced eating, grooming, and scratching during the heat load period. The lowered head, backward ear, vertical or raised tail, and increased respiration rate and panting persisted in cattle during the heat load period. Cattle on the cereal grain diet stood for longer and were more likely to hold their ears backward and tail vertical than those on the substituted diet. We conclude that these behaviours could be used to detect animals that are most affected and that changing from a cereal-based diet to a substituted diet containing a higher amount of fibre, such as lucerne hay, can reduce hyperthermic behavioural responses to a heat load.

Effects of udder edema on parlor behavior in first- and second-lactation Holstein dairy cows

Udder edema (UE) is a metabolic disorder that most commonly occurs around the transition period. However, gaps exist in our knowledge about its effects on parlor behavior. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and effects of UE on behavior in the milking parlor during udder preparation and active milking from 2 to 9 days in milk in first- (FL) and second-lactation (SL) Holstein dairy cattle. Each cow (n = 375) was observed once and monitored from the point of first contact during udder preparation through the first 5 min of active milking. Behavior measurements include step, kick, and kicking off the milking unit. Cows were determined to have UE when the rear udder medial suspensory ligament lost definition and was softened due to the presence of interstitial fluid. In this study, 237 out of 247 (95.6%) FL cows and 104 of 128 (81.3%) SL cows presented with UE. First-lactation cows with UE had a higher step rate (3.97 steps/session) when in contact during udder preparation and attachment (2.80 steps/session), and kick rate during milking (2.68 kicks/milking session) compared with SL cows with UE (2.37 steps/session, 1.25 steps/session, 1.24 kicks/milking session). Those FL cows with UE had a lower step rate during milking (6.04 steps/milking session) compared with FL cows without UE (7.20 steps/milking session). The FL cows with UE had a higher average count of kicking off the milking unit (μ = 0.220 kick-offs) than SL cows with UE (μ = 0.029 kick-offs) and FL cows without UE (μ = 0.091 kick-offs). The results indicate that UE is prevalent among dairy cattle, and the disorder has effects on behaviors presented in the milking parlor. Reducing UE has the potential to decrease step and kick behaviors to improve welfare of transition cows and reduce risk to dairy caretakers in the milking parlor.

Patterns of milking unit kick-off as a proxy for habituation to milking in primiparous cows

The onset of lactation and the subsequent habituation to the milking routine is a stressful period, particularly for primiparous (PRI) cows. The objective of this study was to describe the dynamics of milking unit kick-off (KO) behavior in PRI cows during the first 3 mo of lactation, considering multiparous (MUL) cows as a reference for comparison. In addition, the potential associations between KO and milk yield and mastitis presentation were investigated. A total of 869 cows (PRI = 199; MUL = 670) on a dairy farm in northern CO were included in the analysis. Cows calving between August and November 2020 were enrolled from 3 DIM until 90 DIM. Participants were milked 3×/day in a 60-unit rotary parlor and data from each milking session were downloaded from parlor management software. Milking unit kick-off was used as a proxy for habituation to the milking procedure. Kick-off events were reported by the milking system and defined as an abrupt interruption in the milk flow during the milking process. Cow KO events were recorded for each milking session. Subsequently, occurrence of KO was analyzed by grouping the 3 consecutive milking sessions in each day and categorized as yes or no, indicating whether or not an individual kicked at least once in a given day. Data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA and logistic regression, including parity category, calving season, occurrence of dystocia, and their potential interactions in the models. Least squares means for daily proportions of KO were calculated considering the number of cows with KO events per day in the PRI and MUL categories. Subsequently, odds ratios for the occurrence of KO in PRI versus MUL were calculated at multiple periods of time. When KO was analyzed by DIM, proportions of KO were greater in PRI than in MUL during the whole monitoring period. In PRI, proportions of KO increased from 0.10/d to 0.20/d between 3 DIM and 15 DIM, to start decreasing around 30 DIM and remaining above MUL up to 90 DIM. On the contrary, in MUL cows, proportions of KO remained close to 0.05/d during the 90-d period. Overall, the odds of KO were greater for PRI versus MUL cows (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] = 2.07 [1.58-2.73]). No differences in milk yield were established among KO categories, while the percentage of cows affected with mastitis was greater in cows grouped in the quartile with more frequent KO events. We concluded that the relationship between days in milk and the proportion of PRI cows displaying KO was not linear, but rather KO increased during the first 2 wk postpartum before decreasing after the first month of lactation. First-parity cows had greater levels of KO than MUL cows, which is most likely associated with the process of habituation to milking during their first lactation.

Automated Quantification of the Behaviour of Beef Cattle Exposed to Heat Load Conditions

Cattle change their behaviour in response to hot temperatures, including by engaging in stepping that indicates agitation. The automated recording of these responses would be helpful in the timely diagnosis of animals experiencing heat loading. Behavioural responses of beef cattle to hot environmental conditions were studied to investigate whether it was possible to assess behavioural responses by video-digitised image analysis. Open-source automated behavioural quantification software was used to record pixel changes in 13 beef cattle videorecorded in a climate-controlled chamber during exposure to a simulated typical heat event in Queensland, Australia. Increased digitised movement was observed during the heat event, which was related to stepping and grooming/scratching activities in standing animals. The 13 cattle were exposed in two cohorts, in which the first group of cattle (n = 6) was fed a standard finisher diet based on a high percentage of cereal grains, and the second group of cattle (n = 7) received a substituted diet in which 8% of the grains were replaced by lucerne hay. The second group displayed a smaller increase in digitised movements on exposure to heat than the first, suggesting less discomfort under hot conditions. The results suggest that cattle exposed to heat display increased movement that can be detected automatically by video digitisation software, and that replacing some cereal grain with forage in the diet of feedlot cattle may reduce the measured activity responses to the heat.

Expression of parlour behaviour, temperament, welfare and approach test in postpartum Surti buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis)

The present study was carried out at Livestock Research Station, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat to investigate the effect of parity on milking parlour behaviour, temperament and welfare of postpartum Surti buffaloes. Fourteen postpartum Surti buffaloes were selected and grouped based on parity as primiparous and multiparous (2nd to 5th lactation). The milking behaviour of experimental animals was observed on the day of calving, 7th, 15th, 30th, 45th, 60th and 80th day post-calving keeping in view the peak production of buffaloes. The primiparous animals showed higher milk let down time and milking time, and lower rate of milk flow as compared to multiparous animals. The frequency of incidences of urination, defecation, kicking and stepping were significantly higher in primiparous group. The primiparous animals exhibited more avoidance behaviour when approached by a test person, indicative of more agitation. During milking and in paddock, primiparous animals were more aggressive and restless as compared to multiparous animals which exhibited calmer and docile temperament. From the present study, it could be conferred that parity significantly influences the parlour behaviour, temperament and welfare in postpartum Surti buffaloes.

Effects of dairy cow temperament on milk yield: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The temperament of dairy cows interferes in milk yield and quality, but there is a lack of consensus throughout the literature. Thus, systematic review (SR) and meta-analysis (MA) methodologies were used to assess the effects of dairy cow temperament on milk yield. Our literature search included four electronic databases (CABI Abstracts, Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus) and bibliographies of the publications included on MA. As inclusion criteria, we considered publications about the temperament of lactating cows and its effect on daily milk yield and total milk yield (whole lactation). A random effect-MA was carried out separately for daily milk yield and total milk yield related to each class of cows' temperament, 'low' (low reactivity, calm animals), 'intermediate' (intermediate reactivity), and 'high' (high reactivity, reactive animals). A total of eight publications reporting 75 trials were included in the analyses for daily milk yield, and three publications reporting nine trials for total milk yield. For daily and total milk yield the heterogeneity between publications was high (I2 = 99.9%). Cows of European breeds with intermediate temperament produced less milk daily than the calm (P = 0.020) and reactive ones (P < 0.001). In the case of primiparous cows, those with intermediate temperament produced less milk daily (P < 0.001) than the reactive ones, while for multiparous, the intermediate produced less than calm (P = 0.032) and reactive cows (P < 0.001). Regarding the stage of lactation, cows evaluated throughout lactation with a calm temperament tended (P = 0.081) to produce more milk than the intermediate ones, but less than the reactive ones (P < 0.001). For total milk yield, reactive cows tended to produce more than the calm (P = 0.082) and intermediate (P = 0.001) ones. Among European and primiparous cows, reactive cows produced more than the intermediate (P = 0.001). According to our results, we cannot confirm what we expected, that calmer cows would be the most productive for both daily and total yield.

Detection of cow hind-leg activity during milking by using a 3-dimensional accelerometer attached to the milking cluster

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Hind-leg activity during milking in cows is a good welfare indicator

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Cow hind-leg movements are transmitted to the milking claw

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3D accelerometers attached to the milking claws accurately record cow hind-leg movements

Hind-leg activity in dairy cows during milking is considered an indicator of a stressful situation or discomfort. Automatic detection of cow hind-leg activity during milking could be used to monitor deficiencies at the cow, milking machine, or human level. We assumed that the milking cluster follows cow hind-leg movements during milking. Therefore, the aim of our study was to estimate the ability of a 3-dimensional (3D) accelerometer attached to the claw's hook of the milking cluster to indirectly measure cow hind-leg activity during milking. The behavior of 45 dairy cows during 1 morning and 1 evening milking in a 2 × 3 auto tandem milking parlor was monitored by using direct visual observations and a 3D accelerometer attached directly to the hook of each milking claw. We recorded when hind-leg foot-lifting or stepping (undifferentiated) and kicking behaviors occurred. Detected activities were obtained after applying a standard deviation filter (over a sliding window of 1 s) on the x (left/right lateral) acceleration axis only. We set the detection threshold at 0.13 g (i.e., 1.27 m·s⁻²), based on the visual evaluation of 10 “reference” graphs (from 5 randomly chosen cows). Periods of activity were created for each observed or detected activity (and for consecutive activities that were less than 3 s apart) to take into account the milking cluster's rocking motion resulting from a single movement. Observed and detected periods of activity were considered matching when they occurred simultaneously (with a 2-s delay acceptance in the visual observations). In total, 472 periods of hind-leg activity were observed. The detection of hind-leg activity by using a 3D accelerometer attached to the milking cluster was found to have 69% sensitivity, 99% specificity, 75% positive predictive value, 98% negative predictive value, and an overall accuracy of 97%. On average, cows were observed being active 0.94 times per minute and being detected active 0.86 times per minute. The observed and detected periods of activity were found to be correlated (r = 0.657). Therefore, the use of a 3D accelerometer attached to the milking cluster seems promising for reliably estimating cow hind-leg activity during milking. Nevertheless, further investigations are necessary to clarify whether other factors can cause variations in milking cluster movements, regardless of cow hind-leg activity, and to generalize our method to better identify deficiencies in cow–machine–human interactions.

ASAS-NANP SYMPOSIUM: Applications of machine learning for livestock body weight prediction from digital images

Monitoring, recording, and predicting livestock body weight (BW) allows for timely intervention in diets and health, greater efficiency in genetic selection, and identification of optimal times to market animals because animals that have already reached the point of slaughter represent a burden for the feedlot. There are currently two main approaches (direct and indirect) to measure the BW in livestock. Direct approaches include partial-weight or full-weight industrial scales placed in designated locations on large farms that measure passively or dynamically the weight of livestock. While these devices are very accurate, their acquisition, intended purpose and operation size, repeated calibration and maintenance costs associated with their placement in high-temperature variability, and corrosive environments are significant and beyond the affordability and sustainability limits of small and medium size farms and even of commercial operators. As a more affordable alternative to direct weighing approaches, indirect approaches have been developed based on observed or inferred relationships between biometric and morphometric measurements of livestock and their BW. Initial indirect approaches involved manual measurements of animals using measuring tapes and tubes and the use of regression equations able to correlate such measurements with BW. While such approaches have good BW prediction accuracies, they are time consuming, require trained and skilled farm laborers, and can be stressful for both animals and handlers especially when repeated daily. With the concomitant advancement of contactless electro-optical sensors (e.g., 2D, 3D, infrared cameras), computer vision (CV) technologies, and artificial intelligence fields such as machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), 2D and 3D images have started to be used as biometric and morphometric proxies for BW estimations. This manuscript provides a review of CV-based and ML/DL-based BW prediction methods and discusses their strengths, weaknesses, and industry applicability potential.

Relationship between dairy cows' hind leg activity and vacuum records during milking

In a number of dairy farms, a restlessness of hind legs of cows during milking can be observed for no apparent reason. Previous studies have associated the hind leg activity of cows with mental or physical discomfort. Aim of this study was to investigate whether the observed hind leg activity was influenced by the milking process. The analysis was performed for total milking period and also separately for the following milking periods: let-down, main milk flow and over-milking. The following variables were analyzed for their influence on dairy cows' hind leg activity: the vacuum level in the MPC and SMT, the length of the milking periods, the vacuum curve type, bimodal curves and the presence of teat-end hyperkeratosis. In turn, it was also investigated whether the cows' hyperkeratosis is influenced by milking duration, length of milking periods or by the vacuum level in the SMT. Measurements and observations were done in ten milking parlors, each visited twice. Four milking units per parlor were equipped with vacuum loggers (VaDia 2.0, BioControl AS, Norway). One observer recorded hind leg activity per up to four cows, using the following categories: (1) stepping (claw raised < 15 cm) and (2) kicking (claw raised > 15 cm). A powerful, purposive kick to milking unit/milker was classified as p-kick (3) initially. Due to a small number of p-kicks, they were added to the number of kickings for further analysis. The analyses showed that none of the milking process-related variables had a significant influence on the dairy cows' prevalence to show hind leg activity. Although the prevalence was not influenced, the type of hind leg activity was. The hind leg activity kicking was observed at significantly higher average mouthpiece chamber vacuum levels than steppings. Cows showing kickings had a higher degree of teat-end hyperkeratosis than those showing steppings. The degree of teat-end hyperkeratosis was related to the milking duration.

The human-animal relationship in dairy animals

The present study aims to identify margins for the improvement of dairy animal welfare and production based on the quality of the human-animal relationship (HAR). The main tool proposed to improve the quality of HAR in dairy animals is training of stock-people by targeting their attitude and behaviour. Given that a good quality HAR may benefit the welfare of dairy animals and productivity, new technologies, by monitoring the handling routine on farm, may be more effective in promoting good practices. In particular, the implementation of new technologies may allow identification of specific inappropriate behaviours to be targeted at stockperson level, thus increasing the efficacy of training. However, an issue related to the introduction of new technologies in the farms, particularly in those that follow traditional farming practices, is the resistance to innovation which may be encountered.

Milking time hygiene interventions on dairy farms reduce spore counts in raw milk

Spore-forming bacteria, such as Paenibacillus spp. and Bacillus spp., can survive HTST pasteurization in spore form and affect the quality of dairy products (e.g., spoilage in fluid milk). With the demand for higher quality finished products that have longer shelf lives and that can be distributed further and to new markets, dairy processors are becoming interested in obtaining low-spore raw milk supplies. One method to reduce spores in the dairy system will require disrupting the transmission of spores from environmental locations, where they are often found at high concentrations (e.g., manure, bedding), into bulk tank raw milk. Previous research has suggested that cow hygiene factors (e.g., udder hygiene, level of spores in milk from individual cows) are important for the transmission of spores into bulk tank raw milk, suggesting that one potential strategy to reduce spores in bulk tank milk should target cow hygiene in the parlor. To that end, we conducted a study on 5 New York dairy farms over a 15-mo period to evaluate the effect of a combination of intervention strategies, applied together, on the levels of aerobic spores in bulk tank raw milk. The combination of interventions included (1) training milking staff to focus on teat-end cleaning during milking preparation, and (2) implementing changes in laundered towel preparation (i.e., use of detergent, chlorine bleach, and drying). Study design involved collecting bulk tank raw milk samples for a week before and a week after initiating the combination of interventions (i.e., training on the importance of teat-end cleaning and towel treatment). Observations on teat-end condition, udder hygiene scores, and number of kickoffs during milking were also collected for 24 h before and after implementation of the interventions. A total of 355 bulk tank raw milk samples were collected with mean mesophilic and thermophilic spore counts of 2.1 and 2.4 cfu/mL, respectively, before interventions were applied, and 1.6 and 1.5 cfu/mL, respectively, after the interventions were applied. These reductions represent decreases of 37 and 40% in bulk tank raw milk mesophilic spores and thermophilic spores, respectively. Importantly, spore reductions were observed during each of the 3 visits once the interventions were applied, and the largest reduction in spores was recorded for the first sampling after training the milking staff. Further, when a higher proportion of very rough teat ends was observed, bulk tank milk thermophilic spore counts were significantly higher. The intervention strategies tested here represent easy-to-execute cleaning strategies (e.g., focusing on teat-end hygiene and towel washing procedures) that can reduce bulk tank raw milk spore levels. Future studies should validate the effect of on-farm interventions for reduced spore raw milk on corresponding processed product quality and will need to verify the effects of these small changes on product shelf life.

Transfer of passive immunity in dairy calves: the effectiveness of providing a supplementary colostrum meal in addition to nursing from the dam

Failed transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) in dairy calves - which is often due to the low amount of colostrum provided within a few hours after birth - remains a crucial issue. Enabling dairy calves to nurse colostrum from their dams could be useful in increasing intake and thus avoiding FTPI, but further potential effects on the health and welfare of both calves and dams should also be considered. In this study, 107 calf-dam pairs from two Italian dairy farms were alternately assigned to one of the following colostrum provision methods (CPMs): 'hand-fed method' (HFM) - the calf was separated from the dam immediately after birth and colostrum was provided by nipple-bottle (n = 50); 'nursing method' (NM) - the calf nursed colostrum from the dam for the first 12 h of life without farmer assistance (n = 30); and 'mixed method' (MM) - the nursing calf received a supplementary colostrum meal by nipple-bottle (n = 27). Serum of calves (1 to 5 days of age) and samples of their first colostrum meal were analysed by electrophoresis to assess immunoglobulin (Ig) concentration. Additionally, behavioural indicators of separation distress (calf and dam vocalisations; calf refusal of the first meal after separation; undesirable dam behaviour at milking) in the following 24 h were recorded as binary variables (Yes/No), and the health status of calves (disease occurrence and mortality) and dams (postpartum disorders and mastitis occurrence) were monitored for the first 3 months of life and 7 days after parturition, respectively. The lowest FTPI occurrence (calf serum Ig concentration <10.0 g/l) was found in the MM (11.1%) and the HFM (22.0%) compared with the NM (60.0%) (P<0.05), and the highest percentage of calves with optimal transfer of passive immunity (serum Ig concentration ≥16.0 g/l) was observed in the MM (55.6%). The lowest calf-dam separation distress was observed in the HFM (P<0.05). The highest calf disease occurrence was recorded in the HFM (64.0%) and the lowest in the NM (33.3%), with an intermediate value for the MM (44.4%) (P<0.05). No effect of the CPM was observed on dam health or calf mortality (P>0.05). The results of this study indicated that providing calves with a supplementary colostrum meal in addition to nursing from the dam (MM) is truly effective in maximizing passive immunity transfer. Anyway, specific strategies should be studied to minimise calf-dam separation distress.

Hair Cortisol in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Other Welfare Indicators

India, the country with the largest population of dairy cows in the world, has a policy of retiring abandoned and non-lactating cows in shelters, but the level of provision for their welfare in these shelters is unclear. Cows in 54 shelters across India were assessed for historic evidence of physiological stress, through determination of hair cortisol in 540 samples from 10 cows in each shelter by enzyme immunoassay. Animal-based and shelter resource-based welfare measures were recorded and correlations with the hair cortisol investigated by multivariable analysis. High hair cortisol concentrations were associated with dung in the lying area of the cowshed, a low dry bulb temperature there and little cow access to yards, as shelter-based variables. At a cow level, high hair cortisol concentrations were associated with dirty flanks, hock joint ulceration, carpal joint injuries, body lesions, dehydration, an empty rumen, old age, and low levels of body hair loss. Hair cortisol level promises to be an effective biomarker of stress in cows when conducting studies under field conditions.

The Welfare of Cows in Indian Shelters

Simple Summary

The welfare of cows in traditional cow shelters (gaushalas), was assessed on the basis of the measurement of animal- and resource-based welfare parameters and description of the herd characteristics by the manager. A description of the condition of the cows and the resources provided to them is provided in this cross-sectional study. Small space allowance per cow, non-uniform flooring, little freedom of movement, and lack of access to pastures were the key welfare issues observed in the study. Very few cows were recorded as lame, but about half had carpal joint lesions and slightly less had lesions from interacting with shelter furniture. This study will inform the stakeholders about the concept of welfare auditing of the cow shelters, for better welfare and management of the cows in the shelters.

Abstract

Cow shelters (gaushalas) are unique traditional institutions in India, where aged, infertile, diseased, rescued, and abandoned cows are sheltered for the rest of their life, until they die of natural causes. These institutions owe their existence to the reverence for the cow as a holy mother goddess for Hindus, the majority religion in India. There is a religious and legal prohibition on cow slaughter in most Indian states. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the welfare of cows in these shelters, which included the development of a welfare assessment protocol, based on direct animal-based measurements, indirect resource-based assessments, and description of the herd characteristics by the manager. A total of 54 cow shelters in 6 states of India were studied and 1620 animals were clinically examined, based on 37 health, welfare, and behavior parameters. Thirty resources provided to the animals, including housing, flooring, feeding, watering, ease of movement, cleanliness of facilities, lighting, temperature, humidity, and noise levels in the sheds were measured. The study showed that the shelters contained mostly non-lactating cows, with a mean age of 11 years. The primary welfare problems appeared to be different to those in Western countries, as the major issues found in the shelters were facility-related—the low space allowance per cow, poor quality of the floors, little freedom of movement, and a lack of pasture grazing. Very few cows were recorded as lame, but about one half had carpal joint hair loss and swelling, and slightly less had lesions from interacting with shelter furniture. Some shelters also had compromised biosecurity and risks of zoonosis. These issues need to be addressed to aid in ensuring the acceptability of these institutions to the public. This welfare assessment protocol aims to address the welfare issues and problems in the shelters, by providing feedback for improvement to the stakeholders.

A Novel Method of Assessing Floor Friction in Cowsheds and Its Association with Cow Health

Simple Summary

The objective of this paper was to test a simple method of measuring the extent of the slipperiness of different types of floors in cow shelters. Excessively slippery floors, which are less abrasive, are known to reduce a cow’s ability to walk, lie down, and get up without slipping and causing injury to herself. A moderate level of friction between the cows’ hooves and the floor is required for cow comfort and prevention of foot disease and injuries. This study developed a rapid method that welfare assessors can use to measure the slipperiness of floors in cowsheds. The data obtained were then validated by comparing them with the various animal-based and resource-based welfare parameters assessed in each shelter. The analyses done in this study show that there is a link between excessively slippery floors and various parameters such as frequency of cleaning the floors, the gradient of floors, wounds on the bodies and joints of the cows, and the presence of dirty hind limbs. All of these ultimately affect the welfare of cows in shelters. These results suggest that this simple measure of floor friction could be useful in cow welfare assessments. Further work on the repeatability of this method is recommended.

Abstract

Measurement of friction of cowshed floors to determine slipperiness potential is important for cow comfort. Existing methods require elaborate equipment and procedures. A quick method for assessment of friction characteristics is proposed. Friction was measured in 54 cattle housing and yard facilities with earth, brick, concrete, and stone floors, and its association with cattle health parameters was investigated through assessment of 30 animals per facility. A 156 g cuboidal wooden block attached to a spring balance was pulled over 3 m, and the coefficient of friction was recorded as the force required to move the block at a constant speed. The coefficient of friction ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 and was lowest for concrete and highest for earth floors. A multivariate analysis found that cows were standing more and could be more easily approached when they were on floors with high friction levels. The proportion of cows with dirty hind limbs declined with increasing friction of the floor, probably reflecting the fact that they felt more confident to stand rather than lie on high friction floors. This simple measure of frictional characteristics of cattle floors offers promise to be included in welfare measures as an indicator of cow welfare.

Human and farm influences on dairy cows´ responsiveness towards humans - a cross-sectional study

The human-animal relationship can have a major impact on cow welfare and stockpersons´ work safety and quality. This cross-sectional study investigated possible effects of stockperson and farm related factors on cows´ behaviour towards humans in different test situations on a range of farm types including farms with automatic milking system. On 32 dairy farms, cows´ avoidance distances (AD), tolerance to tactile interactions (TTI), behavioural reactions during and after release from restraint (RB) and expressive behaviour by means of qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) were recorded. Multiple regressions were calculated to analyse associations between the cows´ responses towards humans and factors of stockpersons´ attitudes, factors of human-animal contact and further herd and management characteristics. Positive attitudes towards cows were significantly associated with calmer cows in all test situations. Furthermore, different herd and management factors were related to individual variables of cows´ behaviour towards humans: for instance, the percentage of dehorned cows in the herd was associated with more fearful cows; the frequency of human-animal contact, manual feed provision, or selection for docility were associated with calmer cows. Explained variances were highest for the outcome variables AD and QBA. Directly or indirectly all factors remaining in the final models may be related to the amount and quality of human-animal contacts. Thus, the results suggest that on a broad range of different farm types a positive attitude and frequent human-animal contact can contribute to calmer cows in different interactions with humans in the barn.

Monitoring foot surface temperature using infrared thermal imaging for assessment of hoof health status in cattle: A review

Detection of lameness early in cows is important from the animal welfare point of view and for reducing economic losses. Currently, many studies are being conducted for assessment of hoof health status by measuring the surface temperature of skin in cattle and other animal species in different parts of the world. Infrared Thermography (IRT) is able to detect lesions of hooves associated with lameness by measuring the changes in coronary band and hoof skin surface temperature. The surface temperature of a lame limb will be increased when the hoof has lesion(s). IRT has been used as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for early detection of hoof lesions based on the temperature difference between affected and non-affected hoof and maximum foot temperature on the regions of interest. In spite of having many potential applications in cattle production, factors affecting the temperature readings in thermograms must also are considered while taking images. Standard operating procedures must be established before taking thermographs under different circumstances, by considering all the factors that affect its normal function. IRT may help in minimising the cost of veterinary services, low yield, compromised fertility and culling expenses, where lameness cannot be resolved in early stages.

Genetic parameters for longitudinal behavior and health indicator traits generated in automatic milking systems

Abstract. Genetic (co)variance components were estimated for alternative functional traits generated by automatic milking systems (AMSs), and reflecting dairy cow behavior and health. Data recording spanned a period of 30 days and included 70 700 observations (visits to the AMS) from 922 Holstein cows kept in three German farms. The three selected farms used the same type of AMS and specific selection gates allowing “natural cow behavior on a voluntary basis”. AMS traits used as behavior indicator traits were AMS visits per cow and day as binary traits, with a threshold for equal to or greater than three visits (VIS3) and equal to or greater than four visits (VIS4), knocking off the milking device with a threshold of at least one udder quarter, also as a binary trait (KO), milking duration of each AMS visit in minutes (DUR), average milk flow in kg min−1 (AMF), and the interval between two consecutive milkings (INT). Electrical conductivity (EC) of milk from each udder quarter and in total was used as a health indicator trait. For genetic analyses, in univariate and bivariate models, linear and generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) with a logit link function were applied to Gaussian distributed and binary traits, respectively. The heritability was 0.08 ± 0.03 for VIS3, 0.05 ± 0.05 for VIS4, 0.03 ± 0.03 for KO, 0.19 ± 0.07 for DUR, 0.25 ± 0.07 for AMF, and 0.07 ± 0.03 for INT. Heritabilities for EC varied between 0.37 ± 0.08 and 0.46 ± 0.09, depending on the udder quarter. On the genetic scale, an increased number of AMS visits (VIS3 and VIS4) were associated with an increase of KO (rg= 0.24 and rg= 0.55, respectively). From a genetic perspective, high-milk-yielding cows visited the AMS more often (rg= 0.49 for VIS3 and rg= 0.80 for VIS4), had a faster AMF (rg= 0.40), and shorter INT (rg= −0.51). When considering these traits as behavior indicator traits, selection of cows with desired temperament simultaneously increases milk yield. An increase of automatically and objectively recorded AMS traits with moderate heritabilities justifies modifications of dairy cattle breeding goals towards higher emphasis on behavioral traits, especially when developing specific robot indices. Nevertheless, ongoing research in this regard with a larger data is suggested in order to validate the results from the present pilot study.

Lameness Detection in Dairy Cows: Part 1. How to Distinguish between Non-Lame and Lame Cows Based on Differences in Locomotion or Behavior

Simple Summary

Scoring cattle for lameness based on changes in locomotion or behavior is essential for farmers to find and treat their lame animals. This review discusses the normal locomotion of cows in order to define abnormal locomotion due to lameness. It furthermore provides an overview of various relevant visual locomotion scoring systems that are currently being used as well as practical considerations when assessing lameness on a commercial farm.

Abstract

Due to its detrimental effect on cow welfare, health and production, lameness in dairy cows has received quite a lot of attention in the last few decades—not only in terms of prevention and treatment of lameness but also in terms of detection, as early treatment might decrease the number of severely lame cows in the herds as well as decrease the direct and indirect costs associated with lameness cases. Generally, lame cows are detected by the herdsman, hoof trimmer or veterinarian based on abnormal locomotion, abnormal behavior or the presence of hoof lesions during routine trimming. In the scientific literature, several guidelines are proposed to detect lame cows based on visual interpretation of the locomotion of individual cows (i.e., locomotion scoring systems). Researchers and the industry have focused on automating such observations to support the farmer in finding the lame cows in their herds, but until now, such automated systems have rarely been used in commercial herds. This review starts with the description of normal locomotion of cows in order to define ‘abnormal’ locomotion caused by lameness. Cow locomotion (gait and posture) and behavioral features that change when a cow becomes lame are described and linked to the existing visual scoring systems. In addition, the lack of information of normal cow gait and a clear description of ‘abnormal’ gait are discussed. Finally, the different set-ups used during locomotion scoring and their influence on the resulting locomotion scores are evaluated.

Behavioral changes in freestall-housed dairy cows with naturally occurring clinical mastitis

Dairy cows exhibit classic signs of sickness behavior during mastitis. However, knowledge about the consequences of naturally occurring mastitis in freestall-housed dairy cows, milked in automatic milking systems, is lacking. The aim of the present study was to describe the behavior of dairy cows after diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of mastitis. In the days before and after antibiotic treatment, the milking behavior, feeding, and activity were examined in 30 mastitic and 30 control Danish Holstein-Friesian cows kept in freestalls and milked by an automatic milking system. Sickness behavior was evident in the mastitic dairy cows and local clinical signs in the udder as well as behavioral changes persisted beyond the 3 d of antibiotic treatment. In the days before diagnosis and treatment, feed intake was reduced compared with the control animals. Although reduced by the antibiotic treatment, this difference persisted until at least 10 d after diagnosis. Sick cows spent less time lying in the initial days after treatment, reversing to the level of the control cows within the 10 d posttreatment period. In the 48 h before antibiotic treatment, the mastitic cows showed increased restlessness during milking, as seen by a higher frequency of tripping and kicking. Mastitic cows continued to show increased kicking during milking even after the antibiotic treatment period. These results show that the behavioral changes induced by naturally occurring mastitis persisted beyond the days of antibiotic treatment, thereby calling for further investigation into management of mastitic dairy cows to optimize recovery and ensure animal welfare during the recovery period after clinical mastitis.

Welfare implication of measuring heart rate and heart rate variability in dairy cattle: literature review and conclusions for future research

Heart rate (HR) measurements have been used to determine stress in livestock species since the beginning of the 1970s. However, according to the latest studies in veterinary and behaviour-physiological sciences, heart rate variability (HRV) proved to be more precise for studying the activity of the autonomic nervous system. In dairy cattle, HR and HRV indices have been used to detect stress caused by routine management practices, pain or milking. This review provides the significance of HR and HRV measurements in dairy cattle by summarising current knowledge and research results in this area. First, the biological background and the interrelation of the autonomic regulation of cardiovascular function, stress, HR and HRV are discussed. Equipment and methodological approaches developed to measure interbeat intervals and estimate HRV in dairy cattle are described. The methods of HRV analysis in time, frequency and non-linear domains are also explained in detail emphasising their physiological background. Finally, the most important scientific results and potential possibilities for future research are presented.

The effect of training first-lactation heifers to the milking parlor on the behavioral reactivity to humans and the physiological and behavioral responses to milking and productivity

The objectives of this study were (1) to determine whether training heifers before calving would modulate the behavioral reactivity to humans and the behavioral and physiological responses to milking routines after calving, and (2) whether heifer temperament would affect this response. The behavioral reactivity of heifers to humans was assessed prepartum using 4 behavioral tests (restraint, exit speed, avoidance distance in the paddock and arena, and a voluntary approach test). These behavioral tests were repeated immediately after and 12 wk after training. Temperament was defined based on exit time from a restraint device, and heifers were denoted as either low (LR; n=20) or high (HR; n=20) responders. Two weeks before calving, half the LR and HR heifers were selected randomly for training to the milking parlor, whereas the other heifers were left undisturbed in the paddock. Training consisted of 4 sessions conducted over 2 consecutive days and involved introducing the heifers to the milking platform, associated noises, and human contact. During the first 5d of lactation, behavioral and physiological data were collected from all heifers, including behavior during cup attachment, plasma cortisol concentrations, and residual milk volumes. Milk production data were collected over the entire lactation period. Training reduced the avoidance distance of LR but not HR heifers, and trained HR heifers stepped more than trained LR heifers during a restraint test. The behavioral response of heifers to the restraint test was positively correlated with milk yield, milking duration, and residual milk volume. Trained LR heifers flinched, stepped, and kicked more during attachment of milking clusters than did untrained LR heifers. During the first week of lactation, total milk yield was lower in trained than untrained HR heifers, and maximum flow rates were higher and residual milk volumes were lower in trained than untrained heifers, irrespective of heifer temperament. Plasma cortisol concentrations were lower on d 5 of lactation than on d 1 and were higher in HR heifers after milking than before milking. Over the first 8 mo of lactation, milking duration was lower and average flow rates were higher in trained than untrained heifers. These results suggest that trained heifers may have experienced less distress during the first week of lactation, but the effect of training on the behavioral and physiological responses to milking appeared to be influenced by heifer temperament.

The effect of temperament and responsiveness towards humans on the behavior, physiology and milk production of multi-parous dairy cows in a familiar and novel milking environment

The objectives of this study were to investigate whether; 1) temperament or 2) behavioral responsiveness to humans, can affect the behavior, physiology and productivity of dairy cows being milked in a familiar and novel milking environment. Temperament of multi-parous cows was defined based on exit time from a restraint device, as High Responders (HR; n=10), Medium Responders (MR; n=10) or Low Responders (LR; n=10). The behavioral response of cows to humans was assessed using four tests: restraint, exit speed, avoidance distance test and a voluntary approach test. Cows were milked according to their established routines in a rotary (familiar) milking parlor and behavioral, physiological and production data were collected over five consecutive days, including heart rate, cortisol and oxytocin concentrations and milk yield. The following week, cows were milked in a novel environment (herringbone parlor within the same farm facility) over five consecutive days, and the data and sample collection program was repeated. Cows were then given an exogenous adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge to measure adrenal responsiveness. Exit time was negatively correlated with the behavioral responses of cows to restraint and human avoidance distance (HAD) in the paddock and arena. The behavioral response of cows to the milking process was greater in MR than LR and HR cows in the familiar and novel milking environments. Milk yields were greater in LR than HR cows in the novel but not the familiar milking parlor. Oxytocin concentrations increased during milking in the novel environment, regardless of cow temperament. In the familiar and novel environments, heart rates were higher in HR than LR cows before and during milking and rMSSD was lower in HR cows during milking in a novel environment. There was no difference in cortisol concentrations between LR and HR cows in response to an ACTH challenge, but HR cows had higher baseline cortisol levels than LR cows. The number of leg lifts cows performed when restrained in the crush was associated with several physiological and milk production measures. These results indicate that cows with different temperaments vary in their basal physiology as well as their behavioral and physiological responses to milking and stress associated with being milked in a novel environment.

Stroking different body regions of dairy cows: effects on avoidance and approach behavior toward humans

Understanding perception of dairy cows to common human contact such as stroking is important for improving the human-animal relationship, animal welfare, and production. We hypothesized that repeated stroking of body regions licked most during social grooming, especially the ventral neck, would reduce cows' avoidance of and increase their approach to humans. Sixty tethered dairy cows were randomly allocated to 4 treatment groups that received 5 min of daily human contact 5 d/wk during 3 consecutive weeks: 3 groups were stroked on different body regions. The first group was stroked on the ventral part of the neck (neck); the second group on the withers (both licked often in social grooming); the third group on the lateral side of the chest (chest, licked rarely); and the last group (control) was exposed to simple human presence. The reactions to the person who had provided the treatment were measured using 2 tests in the home tie-stall assessing avoidance from an approaching person who tried to touch the head (approaching person test) and avoidance/approach reactions to a stationary person (stationary person test). Approach behavior was recorded in a novel environment using a standard arena test. In the home tie-stall, cows stroked on the neck showed less avoidance (median avoidance score: 3.33) in the approaching person test compared with cows stroked on the chest and the controls (both: 4.00). That is, at least 75% of the animals stroked on the neck tolerated the touching of their heads (75th percentile <or= 3.75), whereas at least 50% of the cows in the other treatment groups did not accept it. The stationary person test did not reveal any differences between the treatment groups. In the arena test, the 3 stroked groups showed more approach behavior (median latencies to contact: from 145 to 240 s) compared with simple human presence (300 s), but stroking treatments did not differ from each other. Stroking, particularly the neck, reduced avoidance of and increased approach reactions to humans in both the home tie-stall and the arena. Increasing acceptance of being touched after being stroked on the neck suggests that this procedure should be adopted to improve routine handling of dairy cattle.

Milking Cows Once Daily Influences Behavior and Udder Firmness at Peak and Mid Lactation

Our aim was to evaluate the effects of once-daily milking on the welfare of dairy cows in a pastoral-based farming system. There are concerns that cows milked only once daily may experience discomfort associated with udder distension. We evaluated the behavior, including lying time and postures, grazing patterns, and kicking behavior in the parlor, and measures of udder firmness in cows milked once daily in 2 experiments: 1) at peak lactation, comparing cows milked once (1x) or twice-daily (2x) from the time of calving (n = 4 groups; 1x and 2x treatments); and 2) during the transition from 2x to 1x milking at mid lactation (n = 12 groups; 1x, 2x, and 2x to 1x treatments or TRANS). At peak lactation, cows milked 1x were more likely to lie with their hind legs touching the body than cows milked 2x. There were no differences in udder firmness (1x: 10.0 vs. 2x: 9.9 +/- 0.13 g of force) or kicking (1x: 25 vs. 2x: 24 +/- 7.8%) behavior in the parlor. In the second experiment, milking frequency was reduced from 2x to 1x and this change resulted in an increase in udder firmness (1 x: 9.1, 2x: 9.3, and TRANS: 9.5 +/- 0.14 g of force). Despite these differences in udder firmness, lying time (1x: 10.1, 2x: 9.5, and TRANS: 9.6 +/- 0.38 h/24 h), postures, and concentrations of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (1x: 10.0, 2x: 10.5, and TRANS: 10.4 +/- 0.49 ng/g of feces in the 3 d after transition) in cows milked 1x or 2x were similar. Although milking frequency did not influence total time spent grazing, the diurnal grazing pattern of cows milked 2x was disrupted by afternoon milking at both peak and mid lactation. Cows milked 2x were able to compensate for this by grazing more after the return to pasture (DIM 153 to 155, 1x: 52 vs. 2x: 66 +/- 6.2 min/90 min of grazing). Cows milked 1x had slightly longer strides than 2x cows at mid lactation (1x: 0.73, 2x: 0.70, and TRANS: 0.70 +/- 0.014 strides/m). In conclusion, under our experimental conditions, we found no overt changes in behavior or physiology to indicate that the welfare of cows milked 1x is impaired.