Life Cycle Assessment of pork production: A data inventory for the case of Germany

The impact of slaughter weight and sex on the carbon footprint of pig feed intake

The impact of pork production on global livestock's greenhouse gas emissions is substantial. Understanding the factors influencing these emissions is crucial in achieving a more sustainable pig husbandry. In two independent experiments, the impact of slaughter weight on the carbon footprint (CFP) of pig feed intake (CFPFI) was evaluated for growing-finishing pigs of different sexes (entire males (EM), barrows (BA), immunocastrates (IC) and gilts (GI)). In experiment 1 118 animals were raised individually in experimental conditions. In experiment 2 384 animals were housed in group (four pigs per pen), in controlled commercial farm circumstances. All animals were fed ad libitum in a three-phase feeding regime and slaughtered at different BW, ranging from 110 to 148 kg (experiment 1) and from 99 to 138 kg (experiment 2). When only the fattening period was considered, the CFPFI was expressed per kg carcass growth. When the production of piglets was also taken into account, the CFPFI was calculated per kg carcass weight. For all sexes, the heavier the pig, the higher the CFPFI per kg carcass growth (P < 0.05, experiment 1; P < 0.001, experiment 2) and per kg carcass weight (P < 0.05, experiment 1; P < 0.01, experiment 2). In addition, BA had a significantly higher CFPFI per kg carcass growth and per kg carcass weight compared to EM and IC and to EM, IC and GI in respectively experiments 1 and 2 (P < 0.001). When performing a desk study with a soy-free (i.e. reduced CFP) feed in the third phase of experiment 2, slaughter weight no longer affected the CFPFI per kg carcass growth (P = 0.133) and per kg carcass weight (P = 0.856). A higher slaughter weight thus implies a lower sustainability, unless a sufficiently low-CFP feed is provided in the finisher phase.

Life-cycle comparisons of economic and environmental consequences for pig production with four different models in China

China, the world's largest consumer and producer of pork in the world, is attracting increasing attention due to the environmental impacts of its pig production. Previous studies seldom comprehensively compare the environmental impacts of the pig production system with different models, resulting in different intensities of environmental impacts. We aim to comprehensively evaluate Chinese pig production with different breeding models and explore a more sustainable way for pig production. We use life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate and compare environmental impacts of pig production system with four main breeding models in China from 1998 to 2020: domestic breeding, small-scale breeding, medium-scale breeding, and large-scale breeding. The life cycle encompasses fertilizer production, feed production, feed processing, pig raising, waste treatment, and slaughtering. The impact categories including energy consumption (EN), global warming (GWP), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EU), water use (WD), and land occupation (LO) are expressed with "100 kg live weight of fattening pig at farm gate." The results show that driven by governmental support, growing meat demand, and cost advantage, the scale breeding especially large-scale breeding simultaneously yielded greater net economic benefit and less environmental impact compared to other breeding models especially the domestic breeding. Due to mineral fertilizer application, feed production contributed over 50% of the total environmental impacts. Notably, the composition of feeds exerted significant influence on the environmental impacts arising from fertilizer production and feed processing. Furthermore, attributable to the substantial use of electricity and heat, as well as the concomitant emissions, pig raising contributed the largest GWP, while ranking second in terms of AP and EU. Notably, waste management constituted the third-largest EU, AP, and WD. In addition to promote scale breeding, we put forth several sustainable measures encompassing feed composition, cultivation practices, fertilizer utilization, and waste management for consideration.

A systematic review of life-cycle GHG emissions from intensive pig farming: Accounting and mitigation

Pork accounts for approximately 35 % of the global meat supply, with approximately 747 million tons of CO2e greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions annually. To meet the increasing demand for pork, intensive farming is becoming the priority rearing system owing to its higher productivity. Given the climate transformation ambitions of the pig industry but the lack of knowledge and data, we conducted a systematic review of studies published in the period of 2010-2022 from a life-cycle perspective, with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions accounting and mitigation. The significant variations in systematic harmonized global warming intensities (GWIs) can be primarily attributed to differences in accounting approaches, activity data, technologies and geographical conditions. To understand more, we broke down the entire life cycle and revealed the underlying reasons for modelling mechanisms and data from the main emitters (e.g., feeding, pig rearing, and manure management). These findings are expected to support and improve the transparency, consistency, and comprehensiveness of life-cycle GHG emissions accounting in pig farming. Potential mitigation measures were also reviewed and discussed to provide insights to support the sustainable development of the pig industry.

Cellulose-degrading bacteria improve conversion efficiency in the co-digestion of dairy and chicken manure by black soldier fly larvae

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have potential utility in converting livestock manure into larval biomass as a protein source for livestock feed. However, BSFL have limited ability to convert dairy manure (DM) rich in lignocellulose. Our previous research demonstrated that feeding BSFL with mixtures of 40% dairy manure and 60% chicken manure (DM40) provides a novel strategy for significantly improving their efficiency in converting DM. However, the mechanisms underlying the efficient conversion of DM40 by BSFL are unclear. In this study, we conducted a holistic study on the taxonomic stucture and potential functions of microbiota in the larval gut and manure during the DM and DM40 conversion by BSFL, as well as the effects of BSFL on cellulosic biodegradation and biomass production. Results showed that BSFL can consume cellulose and other nutrients more effectively and harvest more biomass in a shorter conversion cycle in the DM40 system. The larval gut in the DM40 system yielded a higher microbiota complexity. Bacillus and Amphibacillus in the BSFL gut were strongly correlated with the larval cellulose degradation capacity. Furthermore, in vitro screening results for culturable cellulolytic microbes from the larval guts showed that the DM40 system isolated more cellulolytic microbes. A key bacterial strain (DM40L-LB110; Bacillus subtilis) with high cellulase activity from the larval gut of DM40 was validated for potential industrial applications. Therefore, mixing an appropriate proportion of chicken manure into DM increased the abundance of intestinal bacteria (Bacillus and Amphibacillus) producing cellulase and improved the digestion ability (particularly cellulose degradation) of BSFL to cellulose-rich manure through changes in microbial communities composition in intestine. This study reveals the microecological mechanisms underlying the high-efficiency conversion of cellulose-rich manure by BSFL and provide potential applications for the large-scale cellulose-rich wastes conversion by intestinal microbes combined with BSFL.

Life cycle environmental impacts of using food waste liquid fodder as an alternative for pig feeding in a conventional Cuban farm

This work aimed to compare cleaner production alternatives for pig production in the Cuban context through the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach emphasizing the utilization of food waste (FW) as a substitute for traditional grain-based pig feeding. A conventional waste management method (lagooning) was assessed, including more environmentally friendly approaches (use of anaerobic digestion (AD) process); including the substitution of a fraction of solid fodder with food waste liquid fodder (LF), obtained from food waste. The analysis was based on one porcine equivalent livestock unit. The environmental impact categories assessed were global warming, terrestrial ecotoxicity, human carcinogenic toxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity, terrestrial acidification, and freshwater eutrophication. The major environmental benefits for pig production were observed when the maximum capacity of pigs was considered. In addition, favorable environmental performance was achieved by considering the substitution of solid fodder by LF, the AD as a waste management process, and the valorization of the solid and liquid effluents. The avoided products-related activities were the main contributor to freshwater ecotoxicity, human carcinogenic toxicity, and terrestrial ecotoxicity impact categories (up to 71 %). The sensitivity analysis showed that the variation in LF composition (protein concentration) could have a remarkable impact in all impact categories. Climate change performed as the more sensible impact category, suggesting that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, such as CO₂ and N₂O, are important drivers to change the environmental impact and need more attention. This research demonstrates that the environmental profile of the process can be improved by applying a cleaner production approach (AD as a waste management alternative and LF substituting solid fodder).

Lower pork consumption and technological change in feed production can reduce the pork supply chain environmental footprint in China

Nearly half of global pork production and consumption occurs in China, but the transition towards intensification is associated with worsening environmental impacts. Here we explore scenarios for implementing structural and technological changes across the pork supply chain to improve environmental sustainability and meet future demand. Following the middle-of-the-road socio-economic pathway (SSP2), we estimate that the environmental footprint from the pork supply chain will increase by ~50% from 2017 to 2050. Utilizing technologies that improve feed crop production and manure management could reduce phosphorus and nitrogen losses by three-quarters and one-third, respectively, with modest reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and cropland area. Reducing pork consumption had substantial mitigation potential. Increased feed and pork imports would decrease domestic environmental footprints and meet demand, but increase footprints elsewhere. We conclude that farm-specific technologies and structural adjustments can support the development of rural, small-scale pig farms near cropland and promote circular economy principles.

Life Cycle Assessment Perspective for Sectoral Adaptation to Climate Change: Environmental Impact Assessment of Pig Production

Growing demand for sustainably driven production systems, especially pork, requires a holistic or system thinking approach. Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) offers a robust methodological background as one of the approaches to achieving system analysis for a product along its lifecycle. On the other hand, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) can perform state-of-art system analysis characterising its sustainability fronts as a compelling set of tools. Pork, as the most consumed meat across Europe (circa 34 kg per capita per year), compounded with the sector’s contribution to global greenhouse gases (GHG) doubling over the past decade necessitated this research. Our objective was to map hotspots along the value chain and recommend the best available practices for realising the sectoral contribution to carbon neutrality and climate change adaptation. To achieve the objective, we compared organic and conventional production systems by basing our analysis on Recipe midpoint 2016 (H) V1.13 as implemented in OpenLCA 1.10.2 using AGRIBALYSE® 3.0 datasets for eleven indicators. We found that producing 1 kg of pig meat under an organic production system had almost double the environmental impact of conventional systems for land use, water consumption, acidification, and ecotoxicity. Feed production and manure management are the significant hotspots accounting for over 90% of environmental impacts associated with 1 kg pig meat Liveweight (LW) production. Similarly, efficient conventional systems were less harmful to the environment in per capita unit of production and land use compared with organic ones in ten out of the eleven impacts evaluated. Implementing increased efficiency, reduced use of inputs for feed production, and innovative manure management practices with technological potential were some of the best practices the research recommended to realise minimal impacts on the identified hotspots.

Tradeoff analysis of the pork supply and food security under the influence of African swine fever and the COVID-19 outbreak in China

China is the world's largest consumer of pork and grains. However, African swine fever (ASF) and the COVID-19 outbreak have greatly impacted the pork supply and food security in China. How can food security and the pork supply be ensured under the dual impacts of COVID-19 and ASF? This is a major problem to be urgently solved by the Chinese government. This study indicated that the main pork production and sales areas in China were separated, which reflected the spatial imbalance between the supply and demand. The total area of suitable selected sites for pig farms in China is 21.5 million ha. If only the areas with levels of high and moderate suitability are considered as potential sites for pig farms, the potential pork production can reach 56.1 million tons in China, which is slightly lower than demand. Due to the impact of the ASF epidemic, the food consumed by pigs has been reduced by 34.7 million tons. However, with increasing pork productivity in the future, the self-sufficiency rate of grains may further decline. On the premise that the quality of people's life is not affected, the diversification of meat supply channels should be realized in an orderly and sustainable way, which might alleviate the pressure on food supply. This study provides a theoretical reference for the spatiotemporal layout of the swine industry and addresses the issue of food security in China under the influence of ASF and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a food-production system in Spain: Iberian ham based on an extensive system

Taking into account that in the literature on pork-production Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) there are a few studies about the Iberian pig, the present article evaluates an extensive (growing-fattening) Iberian-pig system in Spain, producing meat for Iberian ham and other quality-labelled products. The study has been based on Cumulative Energy Demand (CED), Global Warming Potential (GWP), ReCiPe (midpoint; endpoint) and USEtox (human toxicity; ecotoxicity). The analysis involves feed (for pigs and piglets), transportation, drinking water, straw usage and building materials (concrete). The impacts have been evaluated per kg of live or carcass weight (two functional units). The results show that the total impacts (per kg of live or carcass weight) range from: 1) 22.05 to 28.19 MJ_prim (CED), 2) 4.37 to 6.19 kg CO_2.eq (GWP 20a, 100a and 500a), 3) 0.86 to 1.08 Pts (ReCiPe endpoint single-score, involving Human health, Ecosystems and Resources), 4) 9.9 × 10^-6 to 1.2 × 10^-5 DALY (ReCiPe endpoint with characterisation), 5) 2.8 × 10^-7 to 3.5 × 10^-7 (species.yr) (ReCiPe endpoint with characterisation), 6) 10.12 to 12.66 CTU_e (USEtox: ecotoxicity). Overall, the results show that the feed for the pigs is responsible for the major part of the environmental impacts. More analytically, maize and soya are the components with the highest environmental impacts due to factors such as transportation, use of fertilisers and diesel fuel. The discussion about pig-production environmental impacts and the role of extensive pig farming is enriched with comparisons with the literature on pig-production LCA. Critical parameters are identified and discussed, with the aim of proposing solutions to reduce pork-production environmental impacts. Finally, the usefulness of the present study and future prospects are presented.

The environmental performance of different pork production scenarios: a life cycle assessment study

In order to evaluate the environmental performance generated by a "semi-technified" pig farm, as well as the comparison of different pig production scenarios, pig feed and animal production subsystems were evaluated considering both: (a) origin of feed ingredients and (b) variations in pig weight. Life cycle assessment methodology was used to evaluate the environmental performance, establishing 1 market pig as the functional unit (FU). Three ingredient origin distances (400, 950, and 1800 km) and three slaughter weights (110, 100, and 90 kg) were considered for the simulation analysis and comparison. The feed production subsystem was the main generator of environmental impacts, mainly caused by the cultivation of sorghum and the production of fat. The origin of the inputs represented the main increase in environmental impact for the feed production subsystem, mainly in the Fossil Depletion category, with a fivefold increase by acquiring inputs from 900 km and a ninefold increase at a distance of 1800 km. Producing lighter pigs resulted in the best environmental alternative, given the resultant 11% reduction in environmental impact.

Environmental Impacts of Pig and Poultry Production: Insights From a Systematic Review

Pig and poultry production systems have reached high-performance levels over the last few decades. However, there is still room for improvement when it comes to their environmental sustainability. This issue is even more relevant due to the growing demand for food demand since this surplus food production needs to be met at an affordable cost with minimum impact on the environment. This study presents a systematic review of peer-reviewed manuscripts that investigated the environmental impacts associated with pig and poultry production. For this purpose, independent reviews were performed and two databases were constructed, one for each production system. Previous studies published in peer-reviewed journals were considered for the databases if the method of life cycle assessment (LCA) was applied to pig (pork meat) or poultry (broiler meat or table eggs) production to estimate at least the potential effects of climate change, measured as CO₂-eq. Studies considering the cradle-to-farm gate were considered, as well as those evaluating processes up to the slaughterhouse or processor gate. The pig database comprised 55 studies, while 30 publications were selected for the poultry database. These studies confirmed feeding (which includes the crop cultivation phase, manufacturing processes, and transportation) as the main contributor to the environmental impact associated with pig and poultry production systems. Several studies evaluated feeding strategies, which were indicated as viable alternatives to mitigate the environmental footprint associated with both production chains. In this study, precision feeding techniques are highlighted given their applicability to modern pig and poultry farming. These novel feeding strategies are good examples of innovative strategies needed to break paradigms, improve resource-use efficiency, and effectively move the current productive scenario toward more sustainable livestock systems.

Life cycle assessment of edible insects (Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae) as a future protein and fat source

Because it is important to develop new sustainable sources of edible protein, insects have been recommended as a new protein source. This study applied Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to investigate the environmental impact of small-scale edible insect production unit in South Korea. IMPACT 2002 + was applied as the baseline impact assessment (IA) methodology. The CML-IA baseline, EDIP 2003, EDP 2013, ILCD 2011 Midpoint, and ReCiPe midpoint IA methodologies were also used for LCIA methodology sensitivity analysis. The protein, fat contents, and fatty acid profile of the investigated insect (Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae) were analyzed to determine its potential food application. The results revealed that the studied edible insect production system has beneficial environmental effects on various impact categories (ICs), i.e., land occupation, mineral extraction, aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity, due to utilization of bio-waste to feed insects. This food production system can mitigate the negative environmental effects of those ICs, but has negative environmental impact on some other ICs such as global warming potential. By managing the consumption of various inputs, edible insects can become an environmentally efficient food production system for human nutrition.

Environmental burdens of small-scale intensive pig production in China

Small-scale intensive pig production systems account for over a half of the total number of pig farms in China, of which concerns have been raised relating to their environmental performances. This study explores the cradle-to-slaughterhouse gate environmental impacts using life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, with the purpose of identifying major hotspots to formulate mitigation strategies. The functional unit is defined as 1000 kg of pig carcass weight. Consistent with previous research, feed production makes up the largest contribution (56-95%) to all the six selected impact categories based on the ReCiPe 2016 framework. Of the feed ingredients, maize is identified as the principal hotspot mainly due to the large consumption as well as the heat usage in grain steaming to enhance availability of starch digestion. The results also indicate that changes of feed consumption and composition along the lifetime growth reveal a much higher contribution from the grower-finisher stage. Marked differences are observed in terms of greenhouse gas emissions from pig production between developing (including China) and developed countries. With lots of studies showing feasibilities, improvements suggested for small-scale intensive pig production systems include the optimization of feed formulas, the introduction of new feed technologies, and the upgrade of manure management system. Our results provide valuable and practical insight for the Chinese pig supply chain to mitigate environmental burdens and achieve future environmental sustainability.

The Reduction of Crude Protein with the Supplementation of Amino Acids in the Diet Reduces the Environmental Impact of Growing Pigs Production Evaluated through Life Cycle Assessment

Two experiments were performed to determine the digestibility of diets with crude protein (CP) reduction supplemented with amino acids (18.15; 17.15; 16.15 and 15.15%) to growing pigs (30–50 kg), to assess the use of nutrients and account for the manure excretion, and to evaluate the performance, backfat thickness, Longissimus lumborum depth, and plasma urea, aiming to evaluate the environmental impact through life cycle assessment (LCA); for the first time in Brazil interacting experiments were developed to evaluate the CP reduction and LCA. The CP reduction resulted in greater daily weight gain (p = 0.011), final weight (p = 0.020), better use of N and P, through the greater N and P retained (p = 0.003 and p = 0.017, respectively). There was a linear reduction in acidification potential (p = 0.015), eutrophication potential (p = 0.001), and land occupation (p = 0.005) when dietary CP decreased from 18.15 to 15.15%. The reduction in CP and supplementation of amino acids in diets for growing pigs (30–50 kg) improved final and daily weight gain. Through LCA, and performance and metabolism data, it was concluded that for the acidification, eutrophication and land occupation categories, impacts were reduced as the protein concentration was reduced.

Assessing the multiple resource use associated with pig feed consumption in the European Union

Feed consumption is responsible for the largest shares of resource use required for producing pork. In the European Union (EU), a meat consumption decrease is expected in combination with a growth of meat production driven by foreign demand. This paper presents a multiple environmental assessment of the resource use linked to EU pig feed by performing a material flow analysis of each single feed item constituting the EU pig diet. The global relevance and the trade-driven interlinkages are disclosed by considering the country-specific resource efficiencies of 254 territories. Our analysis reveals that in 2017 a total resource use of 14.5 Mha of land, 51.9 Gm3 of green water, 3.9 Gm3 of blue water, 1.23 Mtonnes of nitrogen, 0.35 Mtonnes of phosphorous, and 0.34 Mtonnes of potassium was required to satisfy the EU demand of pig feed. Wheat-based products accounted for the largest share of land use (32%), green water (35%), nitrogen and phosphorous from fertilizer use (44% and 28%, respectively). Also soybean accounted for a significant share of land use (15%), green water (20%) and phosphorous from fertilizer use (25%). Moreover, soybean-related feed items contributed the most to the potassium use (24%). While the domestic production of cereals satisfied the demand, protein-based ingredients such as soybean were largely imported, mainly from South America, outsourcing the related environmental burden. Moreover, most of the feed from extra-EU countries resulted with higher resource use intensities than EU implying a potential resource saving if feed was domestically produced. Results obtained are discussed in relation to the many constraints that limit the possibility of increasing the EU feed production and promising alternative solutions. In particular, while some solutions seem promising in terms of savings, the current EU regulation needs to be redesigned to allow their implementation and the achievement of ambitious EU targets.

Can we associate environmental footprints with production and consumption using Monte Carlo simulation? Case study with pork meat

BACKGROUND

Growing population demands more animal protein products. Pork remains one of the traditional and relatively sustainable types of meats for human consumption. In this paper, life-cycle assessment was performed using data from 12 pig farms. In parallel, a survey on the consumption of pork meat products was conducted analyzing responses from 806 pork meat consumers. The study aims to provide a quantitative calculation of six environmental footprints associated with the consumption of pork meat products in Serbia by analyzing data from pig farms and a pork meat consumption survey.

RESULTS

Results revealed that pork meat production is responsible for the emission of 3.50 kg CO2_e kg^-1 live weight, 16.1 MJ_e kg^-1 , 0.151 mg R11_e kg^-1 , 31.257 g SO_2e kg^-1 , 55.030 g PO_4e kg^-1 and 3.641 kg 1.4 dB_e kg^-1 . Further calculations reveal that weekly emissions of various environmental potentials associated with an average consumer of pork meat products in Serbia are estimated at values of 4.032 kg CO_2e week^-1 , 18.504 MJ_e week^-1 , 0.17435 mg R11_e week^-1 , 35.972 g SO_2e week^-1 and 63.466 g PO_4e week^-1 .

CONCLUSIONS

Results show that, on the one hand, pork products are responsible for environmental production impacts that mainly occur on farms while, on the other hand, consumption is characterized with high meat inclusion rates. As a leverage strategy it is recommended for producers to concentrate on lowering the production impacts rather than trying to reach consumers for sustainability conciseness. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Management of chicken manure using black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae assisted by companion bacteria

Black soldier fly (BSF) is used for the management of organic waste, but research has hardly explored the effect of companion bacteria when chicken manure (CHM) is converted to insect biomass. In this study, we isolated nine bacterial species (FE01, FE02, FE03, FE04, FE05, FE06, FE07, FE08, FE09) from BSF eggs and one (BSF-CL) from the larval gut. These companion bacteria were inoculated into CHM along with BSF larvae (BSFL). Larval growth and manure conversion rates were determined. Results indicated that almost all bacteria individual bacteria in this study significantly promote BSFL growth. BSFL reared in manure with the species Kocuria marina (FE01), Lysinibacillus boronitolerans (FE04), Proteus mirabilis (FE08) and Bacillus subtilis (BSF-CL) had higher weight gain and manure reduction rates compared to the control. These four strains used were then examined as a poly-bacteria community experiment to determine BSFL growth and manure conversion. Manure inoculated with the poly-bacteria Group3 (FE01:FE04:FE08:BSF-CL = 4:1:1:1) and then fed to BSFL resulted in 28.6% more weight gain than the control. The greatest manure reduction rate (52.91%) was reached when companion bacteria were mixed at a ratio of 1:1:1:4. Additionally, the companion bacteria influenced the nutritional value of BSFL. Crude protein content in Group1 (FE01:FE04:FE08:BSF-CL = 1:1:1:1) was significantly larger than that of the control. Crude fat content in Group3 was significantly larger than that of the control. BSFL companion bacteria and their poly-bacteria compound improved manure conversion efficiency and nutrient accumulation in BSFL, reduced CHM quantity, increased larvae biomass, with potential economic gains in CHM management.

Energy and carbon footprints of chicken and pork from intensive production systems in Argentina

Due to the heterogeneity and complexity of food systems, there is a need to increase the knowledge on environmental impacts of regional productions by performing studies in a transparent manner, so that researchers could compare and accurately adapt such data to assess mitigation strategies. With the exception of beef, chicken and pork are the most consumed meats in Argentina and their consumption is expected to continuing increasing. However, despite the growing importance of chicken and pork industry, no studies on environmental impact of these products have been conducted to date in this country. Performing a life cycle inventory with data derived from government statistical publications, academia and communications with industry, the present study aims to investigate the energy and carbon footprints per ton of live weight (LW) of chickens and pigs from intensive production systems at farm gate in Argentina. In addition, we discussed in detail the effects on energy and carbon footprints of two animal diets which comprise different soybean by-products commonly used in animal husbandry, namely expeller-extruded soybean meal and solvent-extracted soybean meal and oil. We found that the energy and carbon footprint at farm gate for chicken was 13.6-15.1 GJ/ton LW and 2.03-2.22 ton CO₂-eq/ton LW, for pigs in hoop systems 23.2-24.0 GJ/ton LW and 5.14-5.17 ton CO₂-eq/ton LW, and for pigs in confinement systems 23.6-24.2 GJ/ton LW and 6.06-6.45 ton CO₂-eq/ton LW, respectively. The choice of expeller-extruded soybean meal or solvent-extracted soybean meal and oil as feed ingredients showed small differences on the energy and carbon footprints of chickens and pigs.

Study on the Vertical Linkage of Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity Change of the Animal Husbandry Sector between China and Its Provinces

China’s carbon intensity (CI) reduction target in 2030 needs to be allocated to each province in order to be achieved. Thus, it is of great significance to study the vertical linkage of CI change between China and its provinces. The existing research on the vertical linkage focuses more on energy-related economic sectors in China; however, attention has not been paid to China’s animal husbandry (AH) sector, although the role of the China’s AH sector in greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction is increasingly important. This study firstly established a vertical linkage of change in greenhouse gas emission intensity of the animal husbandry sector (AHGI) between China and its 31 provinces based on the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposing method from the perspective of combining emission reduction with economic development, and quantified the contributions of each province and its three driving factors of environmental efficiency (AHEE), productive efficiency (AHPE), and economic share (AHES) to reducing China’s AHGI during the period of 1997–2016. The main results are: (1) The AHGI of China decreased from 5.49 tCO2eq/104 yuan in 1997 to 2.59 tCO2eq/104 in 2016, showing a 75.25% reduction. The AHGI in 31 provinces also declined and played a positive role in promoting the reduction of national AHGI, but there were significant inter-provincial differences in the extent of the contribution. Overall, the provinces with higher emission levels contributed the most to the reduction of China’s AHGI; (2) The AHPE and AHEE factors in 31 provinces cumulatively contributed to the respective 68.17% and 11.78% reduction of China’s AHGI, while the AHES factors of 31 provinces cumulatively inhibited the 4.70% reduction. Overall, the AHPE factor was the main driving factor contributing to the reduction of China’s AHGI. In the future, improving the level of AHEE through GHG emissions reduction technology and narrowing the inter-provincial gap of the level of AHPE are two important paths for promoting the reduction of China’s AHGI.

Environmental trade-offs of pig production systems under varied operational efficiencies

Production of pork, the most consumed meat globally, is estimated to emit 668 m tonnes CO₂-eq of greenhouse gases each year. Amongst various production systems that comprise the pig industry, grain-based intensive production is widely regarded as the largest polluter of the environment, and thus it is imperative to develop alternative systems that can provide the right balance between sustainability and food security. Using an original dataset from the Republic of Ireland, this paper examines the life-cycle environmental impacts of representative pig farms operating under varying production efficiencies. For the baseline farm with an average production efficiency, global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP) and eutrophication potential (EP) per kg carcass weight departing the slaughterhouse were estimated to be 3.5 kg CO₂-eq, 43.8 g SO₂-eq and 32.1 g PO₄-eq, respectively. For herds with a higher production efficiency, a 9% improvement in feed conversion ratio was met by 6%, 15% and 12% decreases in GWP, EP, AP, respectively. Scenario and sensitivity analyses also revealed that (a) a switch to high-protein diets results in lower GWP and higher AP and EP, and (b) reducing transportation distances by sourcing domestically produced wheat and barley does not lower environmental impacts in any notable manner. To improve cross-study comparability of these findings, results based on an auxiliary functional unit, kg liveweight departing the farm gate, are also reported.

Environmental assessment of the entire pork value chain in Catalonia - A strategy to work towards Circular Economy

Pork industry in Catalonia plays a foremost and representative role in the Spanish pork sector. Beyond the economic benefits, conventional practices in the pork industry also imply a number of environmental impacts that need to be dealt with. In this context, the environmental performance of traditional linear pork chain in Catalonia was evaluated through a LCA approach. The outcomes of the analysis showed that both fodder production and transport activities were identified as the critical stages of the system. Accordingly, alternative schemes based on circular economy principles were proposed and potential environmental credits were estimated. Within this framework, comparative results highlighted the advantages of moving towards a closing loop production system, where resource efficiency and waste valorisation were prioritised over final disposal options.

Monitoring and assessment of surface water quality in Taquari-Antas Watershed, South Brazil-region with intensive pig farming

Pig farming is one of the human activities carried out to meet the increasing food demand by the increasing population. South Brazil is the region with most intensive pig farming in the country, exerting pressure on the water and soil environments by the relevant pollutant emissions. Therefore, the main objective of this work was to assess pig farming pollution by monitoring superficial water qualities of the Taquari-Antas Watershed in South Brazil. The study area is about 8062 km² (south latitude 292,614, 282,624 and west longitude 520,802, 504,554). In 2014, there were 861 pig farmers and 739,858 animals were slaughtered. Samples were collected bimonthly from 13 spots during 2 years of monitoring. The main analysis included the determination of the water quality index (WQI)-a nine physicochemical and microbiological parameter index-and the trophic state index (TSI), which gives a trophic degree based on phosphorous and chlorophyll-α concentration to assess the impacts of the pig farming on superficial water of the region. The results suggest that the regions with high concentration of finishing stage farms present a higher risk to water quality. A distance of 4 km between different spots was enough to detect a significant decrease in the WQI. The WQI was found ranging from "regular" to "good" (62.77 and 78.95). The TSI were found to be mesotrophic at every spot during the entire period of the study.

Carbon and water footprint of pork supply chain in Catalonia: From feed to final products

A systematic tool to assess the Carbon Footprint (CF) and Water Footprint (WF) of pork production companies was developed and applied to representative Catalan companies. To do so, a cradle-to-gate environmental assessment was carried out by means of the LCA methodology, taking into account all the stages involved in the pork chain, from feed production to the processing of final products, ready for distribution. In this approach, the environmental results are reported based on eight different functional units (FUs) according to the main pork products obtained. With the aim of ensuring the reliability of the results and facilitating the comparison with other available reports, the Product Category Rules (PCR) for Catalan pork sector were also defined as a basis for calculations. The characterization results show fodder production as the main contributor to the global environmental burdens, with contributions higher than 76% regardless the environmental indicator or the life cycle stage considered, which is in agreement with other published data. In contrast, the results in terms of CF and WF lay above the range of values reported elsewhere. However, major discrepancies are mainly due to the differences in the co-products allocation criteria. In this sense, economic/physical allocation and/or system expansion have been mostly considered in literature. In contrast, no allocation was considered appropriate in this study, according to the characteristics of the industries and products under assessment; thus, the major impacts fall on the main product, which derives on comparatively higher environmental burdens. Finally, due to the relevance of fodder production in the overall impact assessment results, strategies to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions as well as water use associated to this stage were proposed in the pork supply chain.

Towards a methodology to formulate sustainable diets for livestock: accounting for environmental impact in diet formulation

The objective of this study was to develop a novel methodology that enables pig diets to be formulated explicitly for environmental impact objectives using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. To achieve this, the following methodological issues had to be addressed: (1) account for environmental impacts caused by both ingredient choice and nutrient excretion, (2) formulate diets for multiple environmental impact objectives and (3) allow flexibility to identify the optimal nutritional composition for each environmental impact objective. An LCA model based on Canadian pig farms was integrated into a diet formulation tool to compare the use of different ingredients in Eastern and Western Canada. By allowing the feed energy content to vary, it was possible to identify the optimum energy density for different environmental impact objectives, while accounting for the expected effect of energy density on feed intake. A least-cost diet was compared with diets formulated to minimise the following objectives: non-renewable resource use, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential and a combined environmental impact score (using these four categories). The resulting environmental impacts were compared using parallel Monte Carlo simulations to account for shared uncertainty. When optimising diets to minimise a single environmental impact category, reductions in the said category were observed in all cases. However, this was at the expense of increasing the impact in other categories and higher dietary costs. The methodology can identify nutritional strategies to minimise environmental impacts, such as increasing the nutritional density of the diets, compared with the least-cost formulation.

Accounting for uncertainty in the quantification of the environmental impacts of Canadian pig farming systems

The objective of the study was to develop a life cycle assessment (LCA) for pig farming systems that would account for uncertainty and variability in input data and allow systematic environmental impact comparisons between production systems. The environmental impacts of commercial pig production for 2 regions in Canada (Eastern and Western) were compared using a cradle-to-farm gate LCA. These systems had important contrasting characteristics such as typical feed ingredients used, herd performance, and expected emission factors from manure management. The study used detailed production data supplied by the industry and incorporated uncertainty/variation in all major aspects of the system including life cycle inventory data for feed ingredients, animal performance, energy inputs, and emission factors. The impacts were defined using 5 metrics-global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential (EP), abiotic resource use, and nonrenewable energy use-and were expressed per kilogram carcass weight at farm gate. Eutrophication potential was further separated into marine EP (MEP) and freshwater EP (FEP). Uncertainties in the model inputs were separated into 2 types: uncertainty in the data used to describe the system (α uncertainties) and uncertainty in impact calculations or background data that affects all systems equally (β uncertainties). The impacts of pig production in the 2 regions were systematically compared based on the differences in the systems (α uncertainties). The method of ascribing uncertainty influenced the outcomes. In eastern systems, EP, MEP, and FEP were lower (P < 0.05) when assuming that all uncertainty in the emission factors for leaching from manure application was β. This was mainly due to increased EP resulting from field emissions for typical ingredients in western diets. When uncertainty in these emission factors was assumed to be α, only FEP was lower in eastern systems (P < 0.05). The environmental impacts for the other impact categories were not significantly different between the 2 systems, despite their aforementioned differences. In conclusion, a probabilistic approach was used to develop an LCA that systematically dealt with uncertainty in the data when comparing multiple environmental impacts measures in pig farming systems for the first time. The method was used to identify differences between Canadian pig production systems but can also be applied for comparisons between other agricultural systems that include inherent variation.

Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of pork using different protein sources in pig feed

Abstract. Feed production is the main contributor to a subset of environmental impacts of pork production. In this context, this study is concerned with the substitution of soy products in pig diets in order to reduce these impacts. The aim of this study was to assess three alternative diets in gestating and lactating sows as well as growing and finishing pigs in order to reduce the amount of soy products used as ingredients. In the three alternative scenarios soy proteins were compensated for by either using a combination of different feedstuffs (e.g. rapeseed meal, fava beans, and synthetic amino acids) (LOW), maximising the use of legumes (mainly fava beans) (LEG) and increasing the amount of synthetic amino acids (AA). These alternative scenarios were compared with standard diets (ST) and formulated in order to reduce the crude-protein content of the diet while maintaining the same performance of the pigs. Each of the resulting 16 diets was then assessed with respect to global warming, eutrophication, acidification, and land use, both when accounting and not accounting for emissions due to land use change. The analysis per kilogram of feed showed that the ST diets performed best with regard to global warming, eutrophication, and acidification. When emissions from land use and land use change were added, ST and AA diets appeared to have the least impact. In contrast, the assessment of scenarios per kilogram of pork highlighted that the AA scenario contributed the least in all impact categories. In conclusion, it is possible to partly replace soybean products by using synthetic amino acids in order to minimise the environmental impacts of the pork supply chain.

Reducing the land use of EU pork production: where there's swill, there's a way

Livestock production occupies approximately 75% of agricultural land, consumes 35% of the world's grain, and produces 14.5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. With demand for meat and dairy products forecast to increase 60% by 2050, there is a pressing need to reduce the footprint of livestock farming. Food wastes have a long history as a source of environmentally benign animal feed, but their inclusion in feed is currently banned in the EU because of disease control concerns. A number of East Asian states have in the last 20 years, however, introduced regulated, centralised systems for safely recycling food wastes into animal feed. This study quantifies the land use savings that could be realised by changing EU legislation to promote the use of food wastes as animal feed and reviews the policy, public, and industry barriers to the use of food waste as feed. Our results suggest that the application of existing technologies could reduce the land use of EU pork (20% of world production) by one fifth, potentially saving 1.8 million hectares of agricultural land. While swill presents a low-cost, low-impact animal feed, widespread adoption would require efforts to address consumer and farmer concerns over food safety and disease control.