Water and concentrate intake, weight gain and duration of diarrhea in young suckling calves on different diets

Effects of dietary supplementation with multispecies probiotics on intestinal epithelial development and growth performance of neonatal calves challenged with Escherichia coli K99

BACKGROUND

Probiotics exhibit antibiotic properties and are capable of treating certain bacterial infections, including diarrhea. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation with multispecies probiotic (MSP) on diarrhea, average daily gain (ADG) and intestinal development of neonatal calves challenged with Escherichia coli K99.

RESULTS

Thirty-six neonatal Holstein calves were randomly assigned to three treatment groups. After E. coli K99 challenge, calves in the control (C) and MSP treatment groups had significantly higher ADG and feed efficiency, and significantly lower fecal scores than those of calves in the diarrhea (D) group. The mean time of diarrhea resolution was 4.5 and 3.1 days for calves in the D and MSP treatment groups, respectively. Furthermore, the structures of the various segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) of the small intestine of the calves, activities of several small intestinal enzymes, and expression of several energy metabolism-related genes in the small intestine segments were significantly affected by MSP treatments.

CONCLUSION

Dietary supplementation of MSP had a positive effect in treating calf diarrhea; it improved ADG and feed efficiency and promoted development of the small intestine. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Distribution of ESBL/AmpC-Escherichia coli on a Dairy Farm

The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of ESBL/AmpC-producing Escherichia (E.) coli and to investigate their on-farm distribution on an exemplary dairy farm. For this purpose, sample sizes were calculated, and fecal samples were collected from cattle of all ages and analyzed for the presence of ESBL/AmpC-E. coli using selective media supplemented with cefotaxime. These antibiotic-resistant bacteria were detected in 22.5% of the samples tested. The prevalence was highest in the calf age group, in which 100% of the collected fecal samples were positive. With increasing age, the prevalence decreased in the other sample groups. While ESBL/AmpC E. coli could still be detected in young stock (15%) and breeding heifers (5%), no resistant pathogens could be detected in adult animals. Whole-genome sequencing of the ESBL/AmpC-E. coli isolates revealed, first, that all isolates were ESBL producers (CTX-M-1 and CTX-M-15) and, second, that ST362, which is known as a biofilm producer, was dominant in the calves (85%, n = 17). Based on these results and the evaluation of a questionnaire, possible causes for the occurrence of ESBL/AmpC-E. coli were discussed and recommendations for the reduction in transmission were formulated. Unlike most German dairy farms, no waste milk feeding was apparent; therefore, factors reducing ESBL/AmpC-E. coli are primarily related to an improvement in hygiene management to prevent biofilms, e.g., in nipple buckets, but also to question the use of antibiotics, e.g., in the treatment of diarrheic calves.

Invited review: Freedom from thirst-Do dairy cows and calves have sufficient access to drinking water?

The importance of drinking water for production and animal welfare is widely recognized, but surveys and animal welfare assessment schemes suggest that many dairy calves and dairy cows do not have sufficient access. Limit milk-fed calves drink more water than calves fed milk ad libitum, but ad libitum milk-fed calves also require access to drinking water, as milk does not meet the animal's requirement for water. At hot ambient temperatures and when calves are sick, access to water is especially important and should be provided at all times. Many young calves do not have access to water throughout 24 h, and whether healthy young calves require free access to water at all times, or from which age, is not clear and requires further study. Dairy cow free water intake (FWI) is largely determined by milk yield, and high-yielding dairy cows may drink up 100 L of water per day. Dry matter, crude protein, and salt content of feed, as well as ambient temperature, have considerable effects on dairy cow water intake. Deprivation of water affects meal patterning for the cow, as well as increased subsequent rate of drinking and compensatory water intake. Although dairy cow ad libitum water intake may exceed the water provision necessary to maintain production, offering water for ad libitum intake may be necessary to safe guard animal welfare. Cattle are suction drinkers that prefer to drink from large open water surfaces, and Holstein dairy cows can drink at a rate of up to 24 L/min. Research on the effect of design and placement of water troughs for indoor-housed dairy cows on their drinking behavior and water intake is limited. Access to a water source at pasture increases the time cows spend there, and access to shade reduces water requirements during periods of warm weather. In both indoor and pastured cattle, there is a lack of knowledge about the effect of stocking of water troughs on competition, drinking behavior, and intake in dairy cows. Studies on the effect of available water trough length and placement, and of the number of cows being able to drink from the same trough of a given dimension, are needed to evaluate current recommendations.

Predicting morbidity and mortality using automated milk feeders: A scoping review

Automated milk feeders (AMF) are computerized systems that provide producers with a tool that can be used to more efficiently raise dairy calves and allow for easier implementation of a high plane of nutrition during the milk feeding phase. Automated milk feeders also have the ability to track individualized behavioral data, such as milk consumption, drinking speed, and the number of rewarded and unrewarded visits to the feeder, that could potentially be used to predict disease development. The objective of this scoping review was to characterize the body of literature investigating the use of AMF data to predict morbidity and mortality in dairy calves during the preweaning stage. This review lists the parameters that have been examined for associations with disease in calves and identify discrepancies found in the literature. Five databases and relevant conference proceedings were searched. Eligible studies focused on the use of behavioral parameters measured by AMF to predict morbidity or mortality in preweaned dairy calves. Two reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts from 6,675 records identified during the literature search. After title and abstract screening, 382 studies were included and then assessed at the full-text level. Of these, 56 studies fed calves using an AMF and provided some measure of morbidity or mortality. Thirteen examined AMF parameters for associations with morbidity or mortality. The studies were completed in North America (n = 6), Europe (n = 6), and New Zealand (n = 1). The studies varied in sample size, ranging from 30 to 1,052 calves with a median of 100 calves. All 13 studies included enteric disease as an outcome and 11 studies evaluated respiratory disease. Of the studies measuring enteric disease, 8 provided disease definitions (n = 8/13, 61.2%); however, for respiratory disease, only 5 provided a disease definition (n = 5/11, 45.5%). Disease definitions and thresholds varied greatly between studies, with 10 using some form of health scoring. When evaluating feeding metrics as indicators of disease, all 13 studies investigated milk consumption and 6 and 7 studies investigated drinking speed and number of rewarded and unrewarded visits, respectively. Overall, this scoping review identified that daily milk consumption, drinking speed, and rewarded and unrewarded visits may provide insight into early disease detection in preweaned dairy calves. However, the disparity in reporting of study designs and results between included studies made comparisons challenging. In addition, to aid with the interpretation of studies, standardized disease outcomes should be used to improve the utility of this primary research.

Lysine and Methionine Supplementation for Dairy Calves Is More Accurate through the Liquid than the Solid Diet

This study aimed to evaluate the performance and metabolic changes in dairy calves supplemented with lysine and methionine in milk replacer (MR) or starter concentrate (SC). Male Holstein calves (n = 45) were blocked and distributed in Control without supplementation (1) and; Lysine and Methionine supplementation to achieve an intake of 17 and 5.3 g/d in the SC (2) and to achieve of 17 and 5.3 g/d in the MR (3). MR was fed (6 L/d) until the 8th week of life when weaning occurred. Calves were followed until the 10th week of age. Feed intake was measured daily. Weight and body measurements were registered weekly. Blood samples were collected biweekly to evaluate the intermediate metabolism. The AA supplementation resulted in lower body weight at weaning and week 10. Calves fed SC Lys:Met had lower SC intake and lower total feed intake at weaning when compared to control. Calves fed control had higher heart girth, hip-width, and plasma glucose concentration. The supplementation with Lys and Met did not benefit dairy calves' performance nor metabolism in this study. Supplementation through the MR was more efficient than SC to result in adequate daily intakes of AA. Further studies are needed to understand the negative effects of AA on calf starter intake.

Intravenous and Oral Fluid Therapy in Neonatal Calves With Diarrhea or Sepsis and in Adult Cattle

Optimal fluid therapy protocols in neonatal calves and adult cattle are based on consideration of signalment, history, and physical examination findings, and individually tailored whenever laboratory analysis is available. Measurement of the magnitude of eye recession, duration of skin tenting in the lateral neck region, and urine specific gravity by refractometry provide the best estimates of hydration status in calves and cattle. Intravenous and oral electrolyte solutions (OES) are frequently administered to critically ill calves and adult cattle. Application of physicochemical principles indicates that 0.9% NaCl, Ringer's solution, and 5% dextrose are equally acidifying, lactated Ringer's and acetated Ringer's solution are neutral to mildly acidifying, and 1.3-1.4% sodium bicarbonate solutions are strongly alkalinizing in cattle. Four different crystalloid solutions are recommended for intravenous fluid therapy in dehydrated or septic calves and dehydrated adult cattle: (1) lactated Ringer's solution and acetated Ringer's solution for dehydrated calves, although neither solution is optimized for administration to neonatal calves or adult cattle; (2) isotonic (1.3%) or hypertonic (5.0 or 8.4%) solutions of sodium bicarbonate for the treatment of calves with diarrhea and severe strong ion (metabolic) acidosis and hyponatremia, and adult cattle with acute ruminal acidosis; (3) Ringer's solution for the treatment of metabolic alkalosis in dehydrated adult cattle, particularly lactating dairy cattle; and (4) hypertonic NaCl solutions (7.2%) and an oral electrolyte solution or water load for the rapid resuscitation of dehydrated neonatal calves and adult cattle. Much progress has been made since the 1970's in identifying important attributes of an OES for diarrheic calves. Important components of an OES for neonatal calves are osmolality, sodium concentration, the effective SID that reflects the concentration of alkalinizing agents, and the energy content. The last three factors are intimately tied to the OES osmolality and the abomasal emptying rate, and therefore the rate of sodium delivery to the small intestine and ultimately the rate of resuscitation. An important need in fluid and electrolyte therapy for adult ruminants is formulation of a practical, effective, and inexpensive OES.

Changes in fluid and acid-base status of diarrheic calves on different oral rehydration regimens

The administration of oral rehydration solutions (ORS) is an effective method to treat dehydration and acidosis in calves suffering from diarrhea. The ORS can be prepared in water or milk. The aim of the present study was to elucidate how fluid and acid-base balance change after feeding milk compared with ORS prepared in water or milk to diarrheic calves. Calves (n = 30) with naturally acquired diarrhea were sequentially assigned in a 2:1 ratio to the following pretreatments: milk and water-ORS (pretreatment 1; n = 20 calves) or milk-ORS (pretreatment 2; n = 10 calves), respectively. The assignment was done on the day of diarrhea diagnosis. On d 3 ± 1 following assignment to pretreatment group, and after a fasting period of 9 h, diarrheic calves were subjected to the following treatments: 2 L of milk (pretreatment 1; n = 10 calves), water-ORS (pretreatment 1; n = 10 calves), or milk-ORS (pretreatment 2; n = 10 calves). Blood samples were taken before and at several time points until 6 h after feeding. Plasma protein, osmolality, and electrolytes were determined and a blood gas analysis was performed. Change in plasma volume was calculated according to plasma protein, and water intake during the experimental period was recorded. Plasma volume was increased 30 min after feeding water-ORS or milk but the increase was less pronounced after feeding milk compared with water-ORS. After feeding milk-ORS, no significant increase in plasma volume could be detected. Because of the pretreatment, plasma osmolality was higher in calves fed milk-ORS, but no change in plasma osmolality after feeding was detected. No difference in water consumption between the treatment groups was noted within the observed 6-h period. The pH was increased after feeding milk-ORS, whereas water-ORS and milk-feeding did not increase pH in blood. Pretreatment with milk-ORS resulted in higher baseline d-lactate concentration, but feeding milk-ORS reduced d-lactate values after feeding. In calves with diarrhea, plasma volume increased more quickly and to a greater extent after feeding water-ORS; thus, we recommend treating diarrheic calves with water-ORS before supplying milk. Nevertheless, diarrheic calves need milk to fulfill their energy needs. The administration of ORS in milk combined with free water access is more advisable than feeding milk exclusively because milk has no alkalinizing ability and contains less sodium. However, the effects of milk-ORS feeding on d-lactate levels in diarrheic calves need further elucidation.

Gradual weaning does not improve performance for calves with low starter intake at the beginning of the weaning process

The weaning process may cause intense stress for dairy calves, even when low volumes of liquid diet are fed. Management tools that increase the intake of solid feeds, such as gradual weaning, can provide better physiological and metabolic conditions through better ruminal development, leading to better adaptation to ruminant metabolism and aiding in stress mitigation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of 2 weaning protocols and 2 levels of concentrate intake on the performance and physiological and behavioral variables related to stress in dairy calves. Thirty-six newborn male Holstein calves were used in a randomized block design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement: 2 weaning strategies, abrupt or gradual, and 2 levels of concentrate intake at 5 wk of age, high (>350 g/d) or low (≤350 g/d). Calves were equally managed until they were 5 wk of age and then grouped according to concentrate intake. Statistical analyzes were performed using the MIXED procedure of SAS software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC), and no significant interaction was observed between studied factors (weaning method and starter intake level); therefore, we considered each factor separately and their interactions with age. The highest dry matter intake and concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate were recorded for animals with a high level of starter intake independent of the weaning method. Structural growth (cm/wk) and average daily gain were superior for calves with high starter intake, but weaning method had no effect. The gradual weaning protocol increased the time eating starter, regardless of the level of concentrate intake. Even animals with low concentrate intake that were weaned abruptly showed levels of cortisol and acid-soluble glycoprotein within normal physiological levels. Apparently, other factors besides the milk supply affect the starter intake level of calves in a conventional feeding program. The adoption of gradual weaning is not effective in improving performance when a calf has low intake 3 wk before weaning is complete, but it reduced vocalization on d 2 postweaning.

Abomasal emptying rate of diarrhoeic and healthy suckling calves fed with oral rehydration solutions

The aim of the study was to determine the abomasal emptying rate (AER) of calves suffering from naturally occurring diarrhoea compared with that of healthy calves. Furthermore, the effects of an oral rehydration solution (ORS) mixed into milk replacer on the AER were determined. Acetaminophen absorption test (APAT) was performed to estimate the AER. Sixty Holstein-Frisian calves (age < 14 days) were included in the study and divided into groups as follows: healthy calves (H; n = 16), healthy calves fed with ORS (HORS; n = 14), diarrhoeic calves (D; n = 15) and diarrhoeic calves fed with ORS (DORS; n = 15). For the APAT, the calves were fed 2 L of milk replacer containing 50 mg acetaminophen (AP)/kg body weight. Venous blood samples were collected before and after milk replacer and AP intake in 30-60 min intervals for 12 hr. During the APAT, no significant differences in median maximum acetaminophen concentration (C_max ) were observed among all groups. Time to reach maximum acetaminophen concentration (T_max ) in DORS (median 390 min, 25/75 quartiles: 300/480 min) was significantly higher compared with that in H (median: 270 min 25/75 quartiles: 210/315 min) and HORS (median: 300 min (25/75 quartiles: 240/360 min). Non-linear regression revealed that the calculated abomasal half-life (AP t_1/2 ) tended to be delayed in DORS (median: 652 min, 25/75 quartiles: 445/795 min, p = .10). The area under the AP curve values (AUC) from 0 to 120 min and 0 to 240 min of the observation period were significantly higher in H than D and DORS. In conclusion, significant differences in the AER indices reflected delayed abomasal emptying in diarrhoeic calves. Furthermore, the hypertonic ORS tended to have an additive delaying impact on the AER, which needs attention for the feeding management of diarrhoeic calves.

Developing and evaluating threshold-based algorithms to detect drinking behavior in dairy cows using reticulorumen temperature

In this study, we assessed for the first time the use of a reticuloruminal temperature bolus and a thresholding method to detect drinking events and investigated different factors that can affect drinking behavior. First, we validated the detection of drinking events using 16 cows that received a reticuloruminal bolus. For this, we collected continuous drinking behavior data for 4 d using video recordings and ambient and water temperature for the same 4 d. After all the data were synchronized, we performed 2 threshold algorithms: a general-fixed threshold and a cow-day specific threshold algorithm. In the general-fixed threshold, a positive test was considered if the temperature of any cow fell below a fixed threshold; in the cow-day specific threshold, a positive test was considered when the temperature of specific cows fell below the threshold value deviations around the mean temperature of the cow for that day. The former was evaluated using a threshold varying between 35.7 and 39.5°C, and the latter using the formula μ-n10σ, where µ = mean of the temperature of each cow for one day, n = 1, 2, …, 20, and σ = standard deviation of the temperature of each cow on that day. The performance of the validation of detection using each of the threshold types was computed using different metrics, including overall accuracy, precision, recall (also known as sensitivity), F-score, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, false discovery rate, false omission rate, and Cohen's kappa statistic. The findings of the first study showed that the cow-day specific threshold of n = 10 performed better (true positives = 466; false positives = 167; false negatives = 165; true negatives = 8,416) than using a general-fixed threshold of 38.1°C (true positives = 449; false positives = 181; false negatives = 182; true negatives = 8,402). With the information gained in this first study, we investigated the different factors associated with temperature drop characteristics per cow: number of drops, mean amplitude of the drop, and mean recovery time. For this, we used data from 54 cows collected for almost 1 yr to build a mixed-effect multilevel model that included days in milk, parity, average monthly milk production, and ambient temperature as explanatory variables. Cow characteristics and ambient temperature had significant effects on drinking events. Our results provide a platform for automated monitoring of drinking behavior, which has potential value in prediction of health and welfare in dairy cattle.

Effect of selected feed additives to improve growth and health of dairy calves

The aim was to evaluate the effect of different feed additives on intake, performance, and fecal consistency index (FCI) of dairy calves from 6-60 d of age and its residual effect 15 d after weaning. Fifty Holstein calves (38 ± 1.0 kg BW) were fed 5 L/d of milk plus starter feed until weaning, and corn silage and concentrate after weaning. The treatments were: control (CON), monensin (MON; 30 mg/kg of starter), probiotic E. faecium (PROB; 70 mg/kg of starter), essential oils (EO; 300 mg/kg of starter), or PROB + EO (EOPROB). Fecal score and dry matter intake (DMI) were measured daily, and animals were weighed every 15 d. A DNA extraction from feces was performed to identify the presence of microorganisms (E. coli, Hafnia, Shiguella, Lactobacillus spp, Enterococcus spp, and Enterococcus faecium NCIMB 10415) by PCR. Two 72-h digestibility trials were performed at days 20-28 and 50-56, by total fecal collection. The DMI before weaning was greater for EO (903.0 g/d) compared with MON (794.3 g/d) and EOPROB (783.1 g/d). The FCI decreased during pre-weaning for EO and MON. Average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (FE) did not differ among treatments before weaning. After weaning, DMI and FCI did not differ among treatments. The EO had greater ADG (917.5 g/d) compared with CON (615.8 g/d) and PROB (592.6 g/d). The FE improved with EO (0.72 g/g) over CON (0.36 g/g), MON (0.49 g/g), and PROB (0.36 g/g). The PCR results showed absence of E. faecium NCIMB 10415 in animals fed PROB and CON. Animals fed PROB had greater intake of CP and NDF than animals fed EOPROB. The EO can be added to the dairy calf ration to improve fecal score and increase DMI. The pre-weaning FCI decrease with MON and increase with PROB.

Physiological and behavioral responses as indicators for early disease detection in dairy calves

This study investigated physiological and behavioral responses associated with the onset of neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD) in calves experimentally infected with rotavirus and assessed the suitability of these responses as early disease indicators. The suitability of infrared thermography (IRT) as a noninvasive, automated method for early disease detection was also assessed. Forty-three calves either (1) were experimentally infected with rotavirus (n = 20) or (2) acted as uninfected controls (n = 23). Health checks were conducted on a daily basis to identify when calves presented overt clinical signs of disease. In addition, fecal samples were collected to verify NCD as the cause of illness. Feeding behavior was recorded continuously as calves fed from an automated calf feeder, and IRT temperatures were recorded once per day across 5 anatomical locations using a hand-held IRT camera. Lying behavior was recorded continuously using accelerometers. Drinking behavior at the water trough was filmed continuously to determine the number and duration of visits. Respiration rate was recorded once per day by observing flank movements. The effectiveness of inoculating calves with rotavirus was limited because not all calves in the infected group contracted the virus; further, an unexpected outbreak of Salmonella during the trial led to all calves developing NCD, including those in the healthy control group. Therefore, treatment was ignored and instead each calf was analyzed as its own control, with data analyzed with respect to when each calf displayed clinical signs of disease regardless of the causative pathogen. Milk consumption decreased before clinical signs of disease appeared. The IRT temperatures were also found to change before clinical signs of disease appeared, with a decrease in shoulder temperature and an increase in side temperature. There were no changes in respiration rate or lying time before clinical signs of disease appeared. However, the number of lying bouts decreased and lying bout duration increased before and following clinical signs of disease. There was no change in the number of visits to the water trough, but visit duration increased before clinical signs of disease appeared. Results indicate that milk consumption, IRT temperatures of the side and shoulder, number and duration of lying bouts, and duration of time spent at the water trough show potential as suitable early indicators of disease.

Evaluation of a multispecies probiotic as a supportive treatment for diarrhea in dairy calves: A randomized clinical trial

The objectives of this randomized clinical trial were to determine whether the utilization of a multispecies probiotic bolus (MSP) in dairy calves with diarrhea led to a rapid resolution of diarrhea and improved average daily gain (ADG). Calves, from a convenience sample of dairy farms with diarrhea challenges, having fecal scores of ≥2 were randomly assigned to receive MSP or a placebo (PLB). The MSP bolus contained Pediococcus acidilactici, Enterococcus faecium, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium bifidum, peptide extract, an enzyme blend, killed yeast extract, dried whey, and natural flavors (Revive, Partnar Animal Health, Ilderton, ON, Canada). The enrolled calves were fecal scored daily for 7 consecutive days and resolution of diarrhea was defined as having 2 consecutive days with a fecal score ≤1. Calves were also weighed at enrollment, 7, and 14 d following enrollment and ADG was calculated. A Cox proportional hazards model was built to investigate time to resolution of an abnormal fecal score. Two mixed linear regression models were created to evaluate the effect of treatment group on ADG in the first and second weeks following enrollment. A total of 148 calves were enrolled in the experiment and no differences were observed between the groups with respect to the age or weight at enrollment. The mean time to resolution of abnormal fecal score was 5.1 and 5.9 d in the MSP and PLB groups, respectively. In the Cox proportional hazards model, the calves in the MSP group had faster resolution of diarrhea when compared with the PLB group; however, an interaction between time from enrollment of the first calf and treatment group was present. No differences were found between the 2 groups with respect to ADG. This study demonstrates a multispecies probiotic and yeast bolus administered to calves at the onset of diarrhea reduced the duration of diarrhea; however, the clinical and economic relevance of this reduction requires further exploration.

Ultrasonographic imaging of abomasal milk clotting and abomasal diameter in healthy and diarrheic calves

In case of diarrhea calves are treated with oral rehydration solutions (ORS), which are known to increase abomasal pH and inhibit milk clotting in vitro. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that ORS with HCO3(-) ≤ 62 mmol/L do not interfere with abomasal milk clotting in healthy calves. However, in diarrheic calves, feeding ORS and milk simultaneously may disturb abomasal curd formation and exacerbate diarrhea due to faster abomasal passage of ingesta. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to ultrasonographically examine abomasal milk clotting and diameter after feeding milk and milk replacer (MR) with and without ORS to healthy and diarrheic calves. Abomasal curd formation and diameter in healthy and diarrheic calves were ultrasonographically imaged before and after feeding milk, MR and ORS prepared in milk or MR. Feeding mixtures of milk or MR with ORS did not cause any remarkable differences in the ultrasonographic images of abomasal content. Moreover, abomasal milk clotting was not disturbed due to diarrhea. Statistically significant differences of abomasal diameter after feeding between healthy and diarrheic calves indicated that abomasal emptying is delayed in diarrheic calves. Hence, further studies are needed to determine reasons for decelerated abomasal passage in calves suffering from diarrhea.