Remote, online assessment of avoidance learning

Far from the threatening crowd: Generalisation of conditioned threat expectancy and fear in COVID-19 lockdown

Fear and anxiety are rarely confined to specific stimuli or situations. In fear generalisation, there is a spread of fear responses elicited by physically dissimilar generalisation stimuli (GS) along a continuum between danger and safety. The current study investigated fear generalisation with a novel online task using COVID-19-relevant stimuli (i.e., busy or quiet shopping street/mall scenes) during pandemic lockdown restrictions in the United Kingdom. Participants (N = 50) first completed clinically relevant trait measures before commencing a habituation phase, where two conditioned stimuli (CSs; i.e., a busy or quiet high street/mall scene) were presented. Participants then underwent fear conditioning where one conditioned stimulus (CS+) was followed by an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US; a loud female scream accompanied by a facial photograph of a female displaying a fearful emotion) and another (CS-) was not. In a test phase, six generalisation stimuli were presented where the US was withheld, and participants provided threat expectancy and fear ratings for all stimuli. Following successful conditioning, fear generalization was observed for both threat expectancy and fear ratings. Trait worry partially predicted generalised threat expectancy and COVID-19 fear strongly predicted generalised fear. In conclusion, a generalisation gradient was evident using an online remote generalisation task with images of busy/quiet streets during the pandemic. Worry and fear of COVID-19 predicted fear generalisation.

The next frontier: Moving human fear conditioning research online

Fear conditioning is a significant area of research that has featured prominently among the topics published in Biological Psychology over the last 50 years. This work has greatly contributed to our understanding of human anxiety and stressor-related disorders. While mainly conducted in the laboratory, recently, there have been initial attempts to conduct fear conditioning experiments online, with around 10 studies published on the subject, primarily in the last two years. These studies have demonstrated the potential of online fear conditioning research, although challenges to ensure that this research meets the same methodological standards as in-person experimentation remain, despite recent progress. We expect that in the coming years new outcome measures will become available online including the measurement of eye-tracking, pupillometry and probe reaction time and that compliance monitoring will be improved. This exciting new approach opens new possibilities for large-scale data collection among hard-to-reach populations and has the potential to transform the future of fear conditioning research.

Reaction time as an outcome measure during online fear conditioning: Effects of number of trials, age, and levels of processing

Recent studies have shown that fear conditioning experiments can be successfully conducted online. However, there is limited evidence that measures other than subjective ratings of threat expectancy can be collected, which means that online research may not be able to adequately replace laboratory experiments. In the current study, we conducted an online fear conditioning experiment consisting of habituation, acquisition, extinction and 48 h delayed extinction recall using ratings of threat expectancy and conditional stimulus pleasantness, and probe reaction time as outcome measures. The conditional stimuli were categories of words and a levels of processing manipulation explored whether words that were processed at a deeper level during extinction evoked smaller differential threat responses during extinction recall. Although the levels of processing manipulation did not produce a significant outcome, we found that extinction recall was successfully operationalised in our study. Reaction time indicated differential responding during both acquisition and extinction recall, and age of participants was correlated in one of two experiments with differential threat expectancy and reaction time, such that older participants showed better safety learning. The outcomes of this experiment provide multiple novel tools for researchers to explore fear conditioning, especially in an online environment.

Schizotypy dimensions do not predict overshadowing

When two cues are presented together and reliably predict an outcome (AB-O1) an "overshadowing" effect is typically observed. That is, the relationship between these cues and the outcome is learned about less well than a cue presented on its own with an outcome (e.g., C - O1). The current study sought to explore the relationship between overshadowing and the positive and negative dimensions of schizotypy. A total of 256 participants completed an overshadowing procedure embedded within a causal judgement task and the Short Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE) which measured the different dimensions of schizotypy. A unilateral overshadowing effect was observed, however, none of the dimensions of schizotypy predicted the magnitude of this effect. These results are the first to demonstrate this finding using an appropriately powered sample and reveal that a tendency to experience symptoms of schizophrenia does not impact upon the overshadowing effect.

Online counterconditioning with COVID-19-relevant stimuli in lockdown: Impact on threat expectancy, fear, and persistent avoidance

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In counterconditioning, a conditioned aversive stimulus (CS) is paired with an appetitive stimulus to reduce fear and avoidance. Findings are, however, mixed on the relative impact of counterconditioning versus standard extinction, where the CS is presented in the absence of the aversive event. This analogue treatment study investigated the impact of counterconditioning relative to standard extinction on threat expectancy, fear, and persistent avoidance with an online fear-conditioning task conducted with COVID-19-relevant appetitive stimuli during the pandemic.

METHODS

Following habituation, in which two CSs (male faces wearing face-coverings) were presented in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US; a loud female scream), participants (n = 123) underwent threat-conditioning where one stimulus (CS+) was followed by the US and another (CS-) was not. In avoidance learning, the US could be prevented by making a simple response in the presence of the CS+. Next, participants received either counterconditioning in which trial-unique positively rated images of scenes from before the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated restrictions (e.g., hugging others and holding hands) were presented with the CS + or no-counterconditioning (i.e., extinction). In the final test phase, avoidance was available, and all US deliveries were withheld.

RESULTS

Counterconditioning led to diminished threat expectancy and reduced avoidance relative to no-counterconditioning. Fear ratings did not differ between groups.

LIMITATIONS

No physiological measures were obtained.

CONCLUSIONS

Implemented online during the pandemic with COVID-19-relevant appetitive stimuli, counterconditioning was effective at reducing persistent avoidance and threat expectancy.