Reduction of the fat content of battered and breaded fish balls during deep-fat frying using fermented bamboo shoot dietary fiber

Application of batter coating for modulating oil, texture and structure of fried foods: A review

Food surface modulation by batter coating is a promising approach to reduce the presence of oil in fried products. This review critically discussed the functionalities, mechanism of actions, rheology, ingredients of formulation, mathematical modeling of the process, cooking method, safety and regulatory aspects, physicochemical, thermal-microstructural characterization of batter coatings, and future research directions. Enormous list of ingredients could be used in preparation of oil-reducing viscoelastic batter coating that includes mostly flours, hydrocolloids, and starches. Bioactive compounds, enzymes, minerals, herbal extracts, baking agents, sugar alcohols, etc. could be incorporated in batter formulation to affect the taste and texture of coated products. Overall mass-transfer process of batter-coated fried foods could be characterized by several mathematical models (Fick, Newton, Page, Henderson & Pabis, modified Page, Arrhenius). Surface and internal microstructural characterization techniques, thermal probing, physicochemical characterization techniques and artificial intelligence can characterize different functionalities of batter coatings including oil reduction and textural evolution.

Bamboo shoots improve the nutritional and sensory quality, and change flavor composition of chicken soup

The effect of adding bamboo shoots to stewing on the quality and flavor of chicken soup has never been reported. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of 4 kinds of bamboo shoots on the edible quality, volatile and water-soluble flavor components of Chahua chicken soup. The results showed that adding bamboo shoots changed the sensory and nutritional quality of chicken soup. A total of 62 volatile flavor components were identified by HS-SPME-GC-MS, of which 12 were identified as characteristic volatile flavor components, and 9 were the main reasons for the flavor differences between bamboo shoot chicken soup with blank chicken soup. LC-MS found that after adding bamboo shoots, the differential water-soluble components in chicken soup significantly increased, and most of the increased components have been proven to have physiological functional activity. In conclusion, adding bamboo shoots improved the nutritional and sensory quality, and changed the flavor components of chicken soup.

Effect of High-Protein and High-Fiber Breaders on Oil Absorption and Quality Attributes in Chicken Nuggets

Consumption of fried foods is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular and other diseases; therefore, consumers are looking to reduce fat intake. We evaluated the effect of high-protein breaders and fiber on oil absorption and quality attributes in chicken nuggets, using flour blends (wheat, chickpea, coconut, oil-quinoa-chia), soy protein concentrate, and brewers' spent grain. We evaluated the chemical composition, water and oil retention capacity (ORC), viscosity profile, and flour particle size distribution, along with the developed breaders (Formulation 1 and 2) and a commercial breader (CB), in addition to texture, color, fat, and moisture contents of the fried chicken nuggets prepared with the developed breaders and the CB. The total dietary fiber content (TDF) of the nuggets breaded with only Formulation-1 and CB was determined. Nuggets breaded with Formulation-1 showed lower (p ≤ 0.05) ORC, better moisture retention (67.6%), and more TDF (4.5% vs. 2.3%, p ≤ 0.05) compared to CB-breaded nuggets. Nuggets with Formulation-1 showed the expected texture and color characteristics for fried products. Formulation-1 has the potential to be used as a breader due to its moisture, reduced ORC, and the texture and color it imparts to the fried nuggets, providing higher amounts of nutrients and possible health benefits.

Carboxy Methyl Cellulose, Xanthan Gum, and Carrageenan Coatings Reduced Fat Uptake, Protein Oxidation, and Improved Functionality in Deep-Fried Fish Strips: An Application of the Multiobjective Optimization (MOO) Approach

In this study, a multiobjective optimization (MOO) approach was utilized for effective decision-making when several variables were changing simultaneously during frying. Carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), xanthan gum, and carrageenan coatings in different concentrations (0.25-1.50%, w/v) were applied on fish strips to reduce the oil uptake and protein oxidation during frying. The pickup of the strips increased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing concentration. The CMC was effective in oil uptake reduction and protein oxidation, as revealed by the lower carbonyl and sulfhydryl contents in the fried strip. The hardness and chewiness of the coated fish strips were found to be declined significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing coating concentrations. The moisture, lipid, toughness, hardness, cutting force, oiliness, sulfhydryl content (all min), oil uptake reduction, and carbonyl content (both max) were considered as multiple criteria for the MOO technique, and fried strips coated with 1% CMC, followed by 0.75% xanthan gum and 0.75% carrageenan, emerged as the best optimal coating.

Protective Effect of Anoectochilus formosanus Polysaccharide against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression in BALB/c Mice

In this study, Anoectochilus formosanus polysaccharide (AFP) was acquired a via water extraction and alcohol precipitation method. The immunoregulatory activity of AFP was first evaluated on cyclophosphamide (Cy)-treated mice. Galacturonic acid, glucose and galactose were confirmed to be the main components of AFP. AFP demonstrated the ability to stimulate the production of TNF-α and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Not surprisingly, the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway by AFP was validated via Western blot analysis. Furthermore, AFP could alleviate Cy-induced immunosuppression, and significantly enhance the immunity of mice via increasing the thymus index and body weight, stimulating the production of cytokines (IgA, IgG, SIgA, IL-2, IL-6 and IFN-γ). The improvement in the intestinal morphology of immunosuppressed mice showed that AFP could alleviate Cy-induced immune toxicity. These results have raised the possibility that AFP may act as a natural immunomodulator. Overall, the study of AFP was innovative and of great significance for AFP's further application and utilization.

Batter Characteristics and Oil Penetration of Deep-Fried Breaded Fish Nuggets: Effect of Wheat Starch—Gluten Interaction

To understand the effect of the interaction between wheat starch ( $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ ) and wheat gluten ( $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ ) on batter characteristics and oil penetration of deep-fried breaded fish nuggets, batters were prepared using a $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ and $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ blend at the ratios of 15 : 1, 13 : 1, 11 : 1, 9 : 1, and 7 : 1 $\mathrm{w}/\mathrm{w}$ , respectively, and batter-breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were fried at 170°C for 40 s followed by 190°C for 30 s. Moisture adsorption isotherms of $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ and $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ , viscosity, rheological behavior, and calorimetric properties of the batters were measured, and pick-up of BBFNs, thermogravimetric properties of the crust, and oil transport were investigated. The moisture absorption capacity of $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ was higher than $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ at a low water activity (0.04–0.65), while the opposite trend was observed at a highwater activity (0.65–0.88). As the proportion of $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ decreased, the viscosity, $G”$ and tan δ of batter, pick-up of BBFNs, temperature and enthalpy change (ΔH) of protein denaturation and $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ gelatinization, and oil penetration of BBFNs during deep-fat frying, which are decreased until reaching a minimum value at the ratio of 11 : 1 $\mathrm{w}/\mathrm{w}$ , then increased ( $p<0.05$ ). However, G' of batter and thermogravimetry temperatures of crust exhibited the opposite trend. These results proved that the $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ – $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ interaction significantly affected the batter characteristics and oil penetration of BBFNs during deep-fat frying, which can be used to guide the manufacturing of low-fat fried BBFNs.

Study on the physicochemical and flavor characteristics of air frying and deep frying shrimp (crayfish) meat

This study aimed to compare the changes in the quality characteristics of air-fried (AF) shrimp meat and deep-fried (DF) shrimp meat at different frying temperatures (160, 170, 180, 190°C). Results showed that compared with DF, the moisture and fat content of air-fried shrimp meat (AFSM) was lower, while the protein content was higher. At the same frying temperature, the fat content of the AFSM was 4.26-6.58 g/100 g lower than that of the deep-fried shrimp meat (DFSM). The smell of the AFSM and DFSM was significantly different from that of the control group. The results of the electronic tongue showed that each of the two frying methods had its flavor profile. Gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) identified 48 compounds, and the content of volatile compounds detected in AFSM was lower than that in DFSM. Among them, the highest level of volatile compound content was found in the DF-190. E-2-pentenal, 2-heptenal (E), and methyl 2-methyl butanoate were identified only in DFSM. In addition, a total of 16 free amino acids (FAAs) were detected in shrimp meat. As judged by sensory evaluation, the AFSM at 170°C was the most popular among consumers.

Oil Penetration of Batter-Breaded Fish Nuggets during Deep-Fat Frying: Effect of Frying Oils

Four frying oils (rapeseed, soybean, rice bran, and palm oils) were employed either as received (fresh) or after preheating at 180 °C for 10 h, and measured for their fatty acid composition, viscosity, and dielectric constant. Batter-breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were fried at 180 °C (60 s), and the effect of the oils’ quality on the oil penetration of fried BBFNs were investigated via the analysis of the absorption and the distribution of fat. Preheating increased the viscosity and dielectric constant of the oils. The total fat content using fresh oils was the greatest for palm oil (14.2%), followed by rice bran oil (12.2%), rapeseed oil (12.1%), and soybean oil (11.3%), a trend that was nearly consistent with the penetrated surface oil, except that the penetrated oil for soybean oil (6.8%) was higher than rapeseed oil (6.3%). The BBFNs which were fried using fresh oils possessed a more compact crust and smaller pores for the core and underwent a lower oil penetration compared to the preheated oils. The results suggested that the oils’ quality significantly affected the oil penetration of fried BBFNs.

Preparation and characterization of low oil absorption corn starch by ultrasonic combined with freeze–thaw treatment

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Combined ultrasonic and freeze–thaw pretreatment significantly reduced oil absorption of corn starch.

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The combined treatment increased the density of corn starch granules.

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The combined treatment increased the short-range order of cornstarch.

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Modified starch could be used in low-fat fried food processing industry.

This study investigated the effects of ultrasonic, freeze–thaw, and combined pretreatments on corn starch oil absorption. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF NMR) was used to study the oil absorption changes after frying of corn starch (CS) subjected to different treatments. The structural characteristics of samples were evaluated using various techniques. Scanning electron microscopy, contact angle, and particle size analysis showed that corn starch subjected to combined ultrasonic and freeze–thaw treatment generated larger, coarser particles with a denser structure. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry showed that combined treatment improved the order and thermal stability of CS molecules, thereby inhibiting oil absorption during frying. The results showed that combined ultrasonic and freeze–thaw pretreatment significantly reduced the oil absorption of corn starch before and after frying.

Comparative Studies on the Physicochemical and Volatile Flavour Properties of Traditional Deep Fried and Circulating-Air Fried Hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus)

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of deep frying (DF) and air frying (AF) on the quality and flavour profile of hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) fillets. The changes of some physicochemical indices such as moisture content, oil content, colour, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and peroxide values (POV) in hairtail fillets were detected with increasing frying time. According to these physicochemical indices and sensory evaluation, deep frying for 7 min under 190 °C (DF7) and air frying for 24 min under 190 °C (AF24) were selected as samples for their great quality. The flavour fingerprint of hairtail (Raw, DF7, AF24) was developed and volatile compounds were investigated by HS-GC-IMS. A total of 28 volatile substances including aldehydes, alcohols, ketones and others were identified both in the DF7 and AF24 samples. There are differences in the aroma fingerprint between the DF7 and AF24 samples. DF was characterised by 2-Heptanone, (E)-2-Heptenal, 2-Pentyfuran and 1-Pentanol, AF was characterised by 2-methylbutanol, Ethyl methyl ketone-M and 3-hydroxy-2-butanone. These findings suggest that the aroma of hairtail fillets after DF7 and AF24 was significantly different and supply flavour information and practical applications of the fried hairtail fillets.

Effects of Konjac Glucomannan on Oil Absorption and Safety Hazard Factor Formation of Fried Battered Fish Nuggets

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of konjac glucomannan (KGM) on oil absorption and the formation of safety hazard factors in fried battered fish nuggets by measuring advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and acrylamide contents. Other physicochemical properties were determined to explore the reason for oil absorption and formation of safety hazard factors. The acrylamide was found mainly in the crust. The addition of 0.8% KGM could significantly reduce the acrylamide content (p < 0.05). For the battered sample, the AGEs content was far lower than the unbattered. The addition of 0.8% KGM could significantly reduce the AGEs content in the inner layer (p < 0.05). The microstructure showed that the sample with 0.8% KGM had the most compact crust. The compact crust reduced oil and malondialdehyde contents. Combined with the other indicators, the inhibitory effect of 0.8% KGM on acrylamide was closely related with the decreased extent of oil oxidation and Maillard reaction in the samples with 0.8% KGM. The inhibitory effect of 0.8% KGM on AGEs might originate from its lower oil content.

Formation of AGEs in fish cakes during air frying and other traditional heating methods

This study investigated the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in fish cakes under air frying, deep frying, pan frying and baking. The results showed that the AGEs contents on the surface of fish cakes significantly increased with prolonging heating time. The AGEs contents under different methods were following: deep frying > air frying ≈ pan frying > baking. However, the AGEs contents in the interior of fish cakes were hardly influenced by the methods and time. The correlation analysis showed that the AGEs contents were negatively correlated with the moisture content, positively correlated with the yellowness (b*) value, oil content and oxidation products. Additionally, the air-fried fish cake exhibited a denser texture compared to the others, and its colour was similar to the deep-fried ones. Conclusively, the air-fried fish cake showed low oil and AGEs contents, and similar colour to the deep-fried fish cake.

Structural transformation and oil absorption of starches with different crystal types during frying

The changes in the structure and oil absorption characteristics of three different crystalline starches under different initial moisture levels (20-50%) during frying were investigated. The granule morphology of potato starch was more severely disrupted during frying, especially under 40% moisture or higher. At 50% moisture, the crystallinity of potato starch decreased by 29.7% and the R₁ value decreased by 0.17. The effect of frying treatment on the structural properties of wheat starch and pea bean starch was less than that of potato starch. At 30% moisture, the ΔH values for wheat starch, potato starch, and pea bean starch were 7.8, 5.5, and 8.1 J/g respectively. The above results showed that B-type potato starch was more susceptible to the effects during frying than A-type wheat and C-type pea bean starch, which led to more oil absorption of B-type potato starch than A-type wheat or C-type pea bean starch.

Genetic Diversity and Health Properties of Polyphenols in Potato

Polyphenol is one of the most essential phytochemicals with various health benefits. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is known as a potential source of polyphenols, and also has health benefits in which phenolic acids, such as chlorogenic, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, and flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, sustainably play the most significant role. Almost every polyphenol contributes to various biological activities. In this review, we collected comprehensive information concerning the diversity of polyphenols in potatoes, and the effects of post-harvest processing and different cooking methods on the bioavailability of polyphenols. To achieve maximum health benefits, the selection of potato cultivars is necessary by choosing their colors, but various cooking methods are also very important in obtaining the maximum concentration of polyphenolic compounds. The health properties including major biological activities of polyphenols, such as antioxidant activity, anticarcinogenic activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-obesity activity, and antidiabetic activity, have also been summarized. All these biological activities of polyphenols in potatoes might be helpful for breeders in the design of new varieties with many health benefits, and are expected to play a vital role in both pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

Effect of air fryer frying temperature on the quality attributes of sturgeon steak and comparison of its performance with traditional deep fat frying

In this study, the influence of air-frying temperature on the physical properties of sturgeon steaks was explored. Meanwhile, the comparison of traditional deep fat frying (TF) and air fryer frying (AFF) methods on the quality, flavor, and digestibility of sturgeon steaks were investigated. The results indicated that along with the increase of temperature (130, 160, and 190℃) for 15 min, the moisture content of AFF sturgeon steak surface decreased dramatically while that of interior was well preserved. The applied texture property analysis exhibited that AFF sturgeon steak showed the enhanced elasticity, low hardness, and soft texture. The results indicated that AFF sturgeon steak contained higher essential amino acid content than TF sturgeon steak. More flavor compounds (aldehydes, alcohols, and esters) were produced after AFF than TF. Although the digestibility of fried sturgeon steaks decreased after frying, AFF sturgeon steaks were digested rapidly in the stomach and intestine. Conclusively, AFF sturgeon steaks exhibited a crispy texture, appealing flavor, and low oil content. This work provides a certain reference for the suitable frying methods in the processing industry of sturgeon products.

The Effect of Batter Characteristics on Protein-Aided Control of Fat Absorption in Deep-Fried Breaded Fish Nuggets

Soy protein (SP), egg white protein (EP), and whey protein (WP) at 6% w/w were individually incorporated into the batter of a wheat starch (WS) and wheat gluten (WG) blend (11:1 w/w ratio). Moisture adsorption isotherms of WS and proteins and the viscosity, rheological behavior, and calorimetric properties of the batters were measured. Batter-breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were fried at 170 °C for 40 s followed by 190 °C for 30 s, and pick-up of BBFNs, thermogravimetric properties of crust, and fat absorption were determined. The moisture absorption capacity was the greatest for WS, followed by WG, SP, EP, and WP. The addition of SP significantly increased the viscosity and shear moduli (G″, G') of batter and pick-up of BBFNs, while EP and WP exerted the opposite effect (p < 0.05). SP, EP, and WP raised WS gelatinization and protein denaturation temperatures and crust thermogravimetry temperature, but decreased enthalpy change (ΔH) and oily characteristics of fried BBFNs. These results indicate that hydrophilicity and hydration activity of the added proteins and their interactions with batter matrix starch and gluten reinforced the batter and the thermal stability of crust, thereby inhibiting fat absorption of the BBFNs during deep-fat frying.

Comparative Effect of Frying and Baking on Chemical, Physical, and Microbiological Characteristics of Frozen Fish Nuggets

The effects of deep-frying and oven-baking on chemical, physical, and microbiological, properties of cassava croaker (Pseudotolithus senegalensis) nuggets during frozen storage were investigated. The moisture, protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate contents varied among the cooking methods and frozen storage times. The deep-fried nugget had a higher fat content, which resulted in a higher energy value (p < 0.05). The free fatty acid content and peroxide value (PV) of the oven-baked nuggets were higher than the deep-fried ones (p < 0.05). The PV tended to increase with increasing storage time, but it was still within the recommended range for consumption. The deep-fried nugget showed a vivid orange–yellow color, with higher L*, a*, and b* values, while oven-baked nuggets showed a pale-yellow color. The baked nuggets had relatively lower total expressible fluid than the deep-fried nuggets at all time points (p < 0.05). The hardness, springiness, and chewiness of deep-fried nuggets were higher than baked nuggets throughout the storage period (p < 0.05). The total plate count and yeast and mold counts produced by the two cooking methods were within the acceptable range throughout the storage.

The Effect of Vacuum Deep Frying Technology and Raphanus sativus on the Quality of Surimi Cubes

This study uses a response surface methodology to optimize the vacuum deep frying process of surimi cubes. The effects of vacuum deep frying temperature, frying time, and thickness on the hardness and color difference of surimi cubes with Raphanus sativus were studied. Further, the manuscript explored the quality changes of surimi cubes under different frying processes (vacuum deep frying, atmospheric deep frying, and shallow frying). Moreover, the Chinese Min-Cantonese cuisine-Raphanus sativus was utilized as auxiliary raw material to change the hardness and reduce the oil content. The optimal parameters of response surface methodology determined were: vacuum deep frying temperature 130 °C, frying time 900 s, and thickness 0.75 cm. Additionally, under this process condition, the hardness of the surimi chunks was 2015 ± 48.17 g, and the color difference was 23.27 ± 1.86. Surimi cubes without Raphanus sativus have superior elasticity and low hardness, and surimi cubes with Raphanus sativus have little color difference and high chewability. After the vacuum deep frying process, there was a high protein content and superior crispness. Shallow frying and adding Raphanus sativus effectively reduced the product's oil content. Therefore, Raphanus sativus is suitable as a potential nutritional supplement to broaden its application in fried surimi foods.

Fried pork loin batter quality with the addition of various dietary fibers

The effect of the addition of dietary fiber extracted from wheat, bamboo, and oat on the quality of fried pork loin batter was investigated. Quality evaluation included proximate composition, pH, color, viscosity, coating and frying yield, electronic nose, and sensory evaluation. Regarding proximate composition of fried batter and fried pork loin, the water content of the dietary fiber treatments was significantly higher than that of the control (p < 0.05), whereas fat content was significantly lower than that of the control (p < 0.05). The lightness of non-fried batter with dietary fiber treatments was significantly higher than that of the control (p < 0.05), whereas the yellowness was significantly lower than that of the control (p < 0.05). The lightness, redness, and yellowness of fried pork loin with dietary fiber treatment were significantly lower than those of the control (p < 0.05). The viscosity and coating and frying yield of dietary fiber treatments were significantly higher than those of the control (p < 0.05). The volatile compounds of dietary fiber treatments were decreased “tallowy” flavor and increased “buttery” and “milky” flavor. The principal components of bamboo and oat fiber treatments were clearly distinguishable from those of the control; however, similar principal components as those of the control were obtained with wheat fiber treatment. Regarding sensory evaluation, the color, texture, and overall acceptability of wheat and oat fiber treatments were significantly higher than those of the control (p < 0.05), and the flavor of the wheat fiber treatment was significantly higher than that of the control (p < 0.05). These results show that wheat and oat fibers are suitable for fried pork loin batter and improve its quality.

Modelling the Mass Transfer Kinetics of Battered and Breaded Fish Nuggets during Deep-Fat Frying at Different Frying Temperatures

Battered and breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were fried at three different temperatures (160, 170, and 180°C) for 30–180 s to study the mass transfer kinetics of moisture loss and fat absorption. The mass transfer mechanism was investigated through an analysis of microstructure, surface oil (SO), and penetrated surface oil (PSO) contents of fried BBFNs. The results showed that Fick’s second law of diffusion and the first-order kinetic model could well describe the kinetics of moisture loss and fat absorption of the crust, respectively. Transfer coefficients of the two mass transports significantly increased with an increase in the frying temperature ( $P<0.05$ ). With the increase in the frying temperature, pore size of the crust increased. The PSO content of the crust also increased with elevated frying temperature. These results suggest that frying temperature affects the moisture loss and fat absorption kinetics of the crust by changing its microstructure.

Physicochemical properties improvement and structural changes of bamboo shoots (Phyllostachys praecox f. Prevernalis) dietary fiber modified by subcritical water and high pressure homogenization: a comparative study

In presented study, the effects of subcritical water (SW) and high pressure homogenization (HPH) treatments on the physicochemical and structural characteristics of dietary fibers (DFs) from bamboo shoots (Phyllostachys praecox f. Prevernalis) were investigated. The soluble dietary fiber (SDF) content was dramatically increased in SW and HPH treated DFs. Compared with HPH, SW modification enhanced higher physicochemical properties including water holding capacity (WHC), oil holding capacity (OHC) and swelling capacity (SC) of DFs. The abilities of DFs to absorb cholesterol and nitrite ions were both greatly increased after treatments. The results of Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that the structure of DFs were changed by SW and HPH. In conclusion, SW treatment showed better effects on improvement of physicochemical properties of bamboo shoot DFs than that of HPH, and the modified DFs could be a potential new functional foods or food additives.

Effect of bamboo shoot dietary fiber on gel properties, microstructure and water distribution of pork meat batters

OBJECTIVE

To develop healthier comminuted meat products to meet consumer demand, the gel properties, rheological properties, microstructure and water distribution of pork meat batters formulated with various amounts of bamboo shoot dietary fiber (BSDF) were investigated.

METHODS

Different levels of BSDF (0% to 4%) were added to pork batters, and the pH, color, water-holding capacity, texture and rheological properties of pork batters were determined. Then, pork batters were analyzed for their microstructure and water distribution using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR).

RESULTS

Compared with the control, BSDF addition into meat batters showed a significant reduction in L*-value and a significant increase in b*-value (p<0.05). BSDF addition of up to 4% reduced the pH value of pork batters by approximately 0.15 units; however, the cooking loss and expressible water loss decreased significantly (p<0.05) with the increased addition of BSDF. The hardness and gel strength were noticeably enhanced (p<0.05) as the content of BSDF increased. The rheological results showed that BSDF added into pork batters produced higher storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″) values. The SEM images suggested that the addition of BSDF could promote pork batters to form a more uniform and compact microstructure. The proportion of immobilized water increased significantly (p<0.05), while the population of free water was decreased (p<0.05), indicating that BSDF improved the water-holding capability of pork batters by decreasing the fraction of free water.

CONCLUSION

BSDF could improve the gel properties, rheological properties and water distribution of pork meat batters and decrease the proportion of free water, suggesting that BSDF has great potential as an effective binder in comminuted meat products.

Effect of the wheat starch/wheat protein ratio in a batter on fat absorption and quality attributes of fried battered and breaded fish nuggets

Battered and breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were prepared by treating fish with a batter composed of wheat starch (WS) and wheat protein (WP) blends (at the ratios of 15:1, 13:1, 11:1, 9:1, and 7:1, w/w), frying at 170 °C (40 s) followed by 190 °C (30 s). Fried BBFNs were evaluated for moisture and fat contents, color, shrinkage, acrylamide content, and fat distribution. Results showed that moisture content and brightness (L^* value from colorimetry) increased with a decrease of WS/WP ratio to 11:1 w/w, then decreased as WS/WP ratio further decreased, while fat content, fat distribution level, and shrinkage of fried BBFNs presented opposite results. However, there was a slight influence of WS/WP ratio on yellowness (b^* value), redness (a^* value), and acrylamide content of fried BBFNs. Among WS/WP ratios, fried BBFNs with 11:1 w/w have the highest moisture content (16.43%) and the lowest fat content (23.39%), fat distribution level, shrinkage (10.72%), and acrylamide content (57 mg/kg), while a crust with golden-yellow color was observed. This study demonstrates that moisture evaporation and fat absorption were significantly influenced by WS/WP ratio in the batter (P < 0.05), with the most effective results in quality attributes improvement of fried BBFNs. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study clearly showed that the fat content and quality attributes of fried BBFNs were significantly affected by WS/WP ratio in the batter (P < 0.05). The inhibition of fat absorption and improvement of shrinkage and color in fried BBFNs was the most effective for a 11:1 w/w WS/WP ratio.

Effect of Xanthan Gum/Soybean Fiber Ratio in the Batter on Oil Absorption and Quality Attributes of Fried Breaded Fish Nuggets

Xanthan gum (XG) and soybean fiber (SF) at varying ratios were incorporated into the batter to inhibit oil absorption in fried battered and breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs). BBFNs were prepared with 1.2% XG and SF blends (at ratios 1:3, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, and 3:1 w/w), fried at 170 °C (40 s) followed by 190 °C (30 s), then evaluated for pickup, oil absorption, textural characteristics, and other quality attributes. Compared with the control (without the addition of XG and SF), fried BBFNs prepared with XD and SF had a significantly reduced fat content (P < 0.05). Among all the treatments, fried BBFNs with a 1:2 w/w ratio of XG and SF had the lowest fat content in the crust and the core (16.2% and 0.6%, respectively) and the highest moisture content. When compared with other treatments, the 1:2 w/w treatment group displayed a more intense golden yellow color, higher crispness, lower hardness, and a more compact structure in the crust, a greater elasticity and chewiness of the core, and the least oil penetration. The results proved that the combined addition of XG and SF in the batter can effectively inhibit oil absorption, which may be used to guide the production of low-fat fried BBFNs.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

This study clearly showed that the combined addition of XG and SF at different ratios in the batter significantly affected fat content and quality attributes of fried BBFNs. The inhibition of oil absorption and improvement of color and textural characteristics in fried BBFNs depended on the XG/SF ratio added to the batter, and a 1:2 w/w ratio was found to produce the maximum enhancement.

Effect of Various Pretreatments on Quality Attributes of Vacuum-Fried Shiitake Mushroom Chips

The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of pretreatments on the quality of vacuum-fried shiitake mushroom slices. Four different pretreatments addressed in this study were (1) blanching as control, (2) blanching and osmotic dehydration with maltodextrin (MD) solution, (3) blanching, osmotic dehydration, and coating with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), (4) blanching and osmotic dehydration, followed by freezing. All samples were pretreated and then fried in palm oil at 90°C with vacuum degree of −0.095 MPa for 30 min. The results showed that pretreatments significantly (p<0.05) affected the moisture content, oil content, color, water activity (aw), total phenolic content, and sensory evaluation of shiitake mushroom chips. The blanching, osmotic dehydration, and coating pretreatment could improve color and sensory evaluation and also minimize the oil uptake of fried chips, whereas this treatment caused the highest reduction of total phenolic contents. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences of fried chip in the texture among the four different pretreatments. The aw values of all the fried chips were less than 0.38, indicating that the products had a long shelf life. Therefore, the blanching, osmotic dehydration, and coating pretreatment before vacuum frying was the most suitable pretreatment for vacuum-fried shiitake mushroom chips.