Optimization of the production of structured lipid by enzymatic interesterification from coconut (Cocos nucifera) oil and sesame (Sesamum indicum) oil using Response Surface Methodology

Enzymatic Interesterification of Coconut and Hemp Oil Mixtures to Obtain Modified Structured Lipids

The interesterification process allows structured lipids (SLs) to be obtained with a modified triacylglycerol (TAG) structure, in which the unfavorable saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are replaced with nutritionally significant fatty acids (FAs) such as monounsaturated (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated (PUFAs). Oxidative stability is crucial for the quality of SLs. This study aimed to characterize and evaluate the FA profile and oxidative stability of SLs synthesized by the enzymatic interesterification of hemp seed oil (HO) and coconut oil (CO) blends. Blends were prepared in three ratios (75% HO:25% CO, 50% HO:50% CO, and 25% HO:75% CO) and interesterified using sn-1,3 regiospecific lipase for 2 or 6 h. FA composition, the FA distribution of TAGs, acid value (AV), peroxide value (PV), and oxidation time were analyzed and compared to non-interesterified blends. Results showed no significant difference in the SFA:MUFA ratios between interesterified and non-interesterified blends with the same proportions. Lauric acid predominantly occupied the sn-2 position in all blends. Interesterified blends had higher AVs, exceeding codex standards, while PVs remained within the acceptable limits. Blends with 75% HO had lower oxidation times compared to those with 75% CO, with no significant difference between interesterified and non-interesterified blends. In the interesterification process of the studied blends, new TAGs with a modified structure were created, which may affect their physical and nutritional properties. This process also had a significant effect on the AV and PV levels, but not on the oxidation time of the modified blends. Therefore, it is necessary to remove free FAs after the enzymatic process to produce SLs characterized by improved hydrolytic stability. This will lead to better technological properties compared to the original oils. Further research is also necessary to enhance the oxidation stability of SLs obtained from blends of CO and HO to improve their storage stability.

Effects of a novel medium-long-medium-type structured lipid synthesized using a two-step enzymatic method on lipid metabolism and obesity protection in experimental mice

We synthesized a novel, structured lipid containing caprylic acid at its sn-1,3 position and docosahexaenoic acid at its sn-2 position (1,3C-2D-TAG) by using a two-step enzymatic method and then investigated the relationship between the types of fatty acids in the structured lipid and their physiological functions. Furthermore, we compared the effects of similarly structured lipids on postprandial lipid metabolism and obesity protection. The results revealed that the novel structured lipid synthesized using the enzymatic method not only exhibited better physical properties than traditional oils but also had high oxidation stability and crystallization degree. In terms of physiological function, the low-dose 1,3C-2D-TAG group exhibited higher cholesterol and triglyceride levels, lower kidney weight or body weight, and higher serum aspartate aminotransferase and blood urea nitrogen levels than control group, whereas the high-dose 1,3C-2D-TAG group exhibited higher triglyceride levels. Moreover, the medium-dose 1,3C-2D-TAG group had remarkably higher high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels than the high-lipid, control, and 1,2,3C-TAG groups; however, the cholesterol and triglyceride levels and kidney and liver functions did not differ significantly among these groups. The study results suggest that 1,3C-2D-TAG can not only facilitate the effective utilization of the energy supplied by medium-chain fatty acids but also help overcome difficulties in the absorption of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Sanches S, Da Silva D, Silva Júnior J, Da Silva L, Da C. Rodrigues A. Fatty acid profile and rheological behavior of annatto seed oil (Bixa orellana), cupuassu seed fat (Theobroma grandiflorum), and their blends

Annatto seed oil (ASO) and cupuassu seed fat (CSF) were combined at the ratios: 30:70, 50:50, and 70:30 (% w/w). Their fatty acid profile, nutritional quality, FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) spectra, and rheological behavior were evaluated. ASO increased the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the blends; whereas CSF conferred higher contents of monounsaturated fatty acids. The blends exhibited low atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indices, suggesting nutritional advantages. The Newtonian fluid behavior and FTIR results suggested that mixing ASO and CSF at different proportions did not affect the functional groups. ASO showed an activation energy value which indicated that this fat viscosity was more sensitive to temperature changes. The Newtonian model proved to be suitable to describe the behavior of samples, according to statistical fit parameters R2, χ2, and RSS. The resulting blends presented improved physicochemical properties and nutritional attributes, indicating their feasibility for the development of new products.

Incrementing MCT Character of Coconut Oil Using Enzyme Catalyzed Interesterification

The fatty acid composition of coconut oil was modified using enzyme catalyzed interesterification with the aim of obtaining a product more alike to commercial MCT oils. This modification was carried out with the aim to obtain a product with some of the health benefits shown by MCT oils. Initially, lipase B from Candida antarctica immobilized on acrylic resin and lipozyme TL IM were tested as enzyme catalysts for the reaction. The enzyme catalysts have shown similar performance and lipozyme TL IM has been chosen as the catalyst based on its lower cost. The effects of reaction time, oil to methyl octanoate ratio, and enzyme loading on the reaction performance have been investigated with response surface methodology (RSM) utilizing the Box-Behnken approach. The optimized reaction was scaled up to 20 g. The possibility to source the medium chain fatty acid esters from coconut oil fatty acid distillate using a simple procedure was demonstrated and the possibility to use these esters for the interesterification of coconut oil has been demonstrated as well.

Chemical Composition of Tobacco Seed Oils and Their Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Whitening Activities

Tobacco seeds are a valuable food oil resource, and tobacco seed oil is rich in nutrients, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids. The aim of this work was to perform a comprehensive study on the chemical constituents, and the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and whitening activities of tobacco seed oils (NC89 and BS4). A GC/MS analysis revealed that NC89 and BS4 had 11 and 6 volatile compounds, respectively. The PUFA contents in NC89 and BS4 were 74.98% and 72.84%, respectively. These two tobacco seed oils also presented good radical scavenging capacities with the neutralization of ABTS, OH^-, and superoxide (O₂^-) radicals in a concentration-dependent manner. Meanwhile, NC89 and BS4 inhibited reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and cell apoptosis, enhanced SOD and CAT activities, and increased the GSH content in H₂O₂-induced HepG2 cells. In addition, NC89 and BS4 exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting the expressions of NO, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in LPS-induced RAW.264.7 cells through the regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. Moreover, NC89 and BS4 expressed whitening activities by inhibiting tyrosinase activity and intracellular melanin production. Therefore, tobacco seed oils could be used as an important oil resource for the development of high value-added products.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.): A Comprehensive Review of Nutritional Value, Phytochemical Composition, Health Benefits, Development of Food, and Industrial Applications

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), of the Pedaliaceae family, is one of the first oil crops used in humans. It is widely grown and has a mellow flavor and high nutritional value, making it very popular in the diet. Sesame seeds are rich in protein and lipids and have many health benefits. A number of in vitro and in vivo studies and clinical trials have found sesame seeds to be rich in lignan-like active ingredients. They have antioxidant, cholesterol reduction, blood lipid regulation, liver and kidney protection, cardiovascular system protection, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and other effects, which have great benefits to human health. In addition, the aqueous extract of sesame has been shown to be safe for animals. As an important medicinal and edible homologous food, sesame is used in various aspects of daily life such as food, feed, and cosmetics. The health food applications of sesame are increasing. This paper reviews the progress of research on the nutritional value, chemical composition, pharmacological effects, and processing uses of sesame to support the further development of more functionalities of sesame.

Physicochemical properties of a new structural lipid from the enzymatical incorporation of flaxseed oil into mutton tallow

This study evaluated the physio-chemical properties of a structural lipid (SL) obtained by the enzymatical incorporation of flaxseed oil into mutton tallow (MT). By measuring the melting point, colour, safety, fatty acids, apparent viscosity, shear stress and volatile compounds of the samples, the results showed that compared to MT, SL exhibited lower L∗(lightness) value, melting point, apparent viscosity and shear stress (p < 0.05). Noteworthy, the Saturated fatty acids (SFA)content of MT was reduced from 61.46% to 25.49% (p < 0.05), although SL was found to be more prone to oxidation during storage. The clearest discrepancy in volatile compounds was the increase of heterocyclic compounds in SL. In summary, improving the edible properties of animal fats by adding vegetable oils is an effective solution, and SL may have a great potential to be developed into a high-quality product with improved nutritional composition of animal fat.

Preparation and Characterization of Solid Acid Catalysts for the Conversion of Sesamin into Asarinin in Sesame Oil

Asarinin, an isomer of sesamin, has attracted attention because it has stronger biological properties than sesamin. The research on the conversion of sesamin into asarinin is limited. In this study, solid acid catalysts were screened and applied to promote the conversion of sesamin into asarinin in sesame oil. The results showed that citric acid loaded on zeolite beta (CTAH) was the optimal catalyst for asarinin production among the prepared catalysts. Characterization showed that CTAH had the greatest pore volume, largest surface area and strongest acid content. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the reaction conditions for asarinin yield using CTAH. The optimal reaction conditions were as follows: temperature, 85 °C; time, 2.7 h; catalyst amount, 1.6%. The predicted and experimental values of asarinin yield were 50.79 and 51.80 mg/100 g, respectively. The peroxide value and color in sesame oil samples treated with CTAH were clearly improved. In short, CTAH is a solid acid catalyst with potential application in the industrial conversion of sesamin into asarinin and in the improvement of sesame oil.

Agroindustrial valorization of the pulp and peel, seed, flour, and oil of moriche (Mauritia flexuosa) from the Bita River, Colombia: a potential source of essential fatty acids

The expansion of the agricultural frontier in the eastern llanos region of Colombia has endangered the moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa) which has an important ecological function and provides various ecosystem services. In particular, the moriche that grows in this region is wild and has been little studied; therefore, there are no reports of its potential as a source of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, information that could be useful for the conservation of the species. This study performed a physicochemical characterization of the oil extracted from the dried pulp of moriche and identified the fatty acids present in the oil, pulp and peel, seed, and flour of this fruit from the Bita River Basin, Vichada, Colombia. The fatty acid composition was characterized by gas chromatography, including physicochemical tests of interest in the oil according to AOCS protocols. The results showed that the highest fatty acid content was found in the extracted oil, with a distribution of 81.64% unsaturated fat and 18.36% saturated fat. These fats included 79.20% oleic acid (omega-9), 0.26% palmitoleic acid (omega-7), 1.01% linoleic acid (omega-6), 1% linolenic acid (omega-3), 16.91% palmitic acid, and 1.33% stearic acid. We conclude that moriche from Bita Basin is an oleaginous fruit due to its high nutritional value in terms of unsaturated fatty acids and that both the flour and the oil obtained are bioproducts with potential industrial application.

Experimental investigations on viscosity and density of eco-friendly MoS2-sesame oil nano-lubricants and its influence on pumping power

In this study, the rheological behavior and density of MoS₂/sesame oil based nano-lubricants are experimentally investigated. The transmission electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction technique were utilized to confirm the morphology of the MoS₂nano particles. The experimental measurements are carried out at temperature varying from 313 to 393 K, shear rate ranging from 10to 70 s^-1and solid volume fraction ranging from 0.2% to 1.2%. For the both nano-lubricants and pure lubricant, shear thinning behavior is observed. The influence of temperature and nanoparticle concentration on viscosity and density of nano lubricants are examined. The viscosity and density of nano-lubricants increased with an increase of solid volume fraction, while, it decreased with an increase in temperature. Moreover, the effect of nano particle concentration on the pumping power of lubricant flow are discussed. Finally, an experimental correlation was developed for predicting the viscosity of MoS₂/sesame oil based nano-lubricant.

Lipase Immobilization in Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Biofuel Production

Lipases are ubiquitous enzymes whose physiological role is the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol into fatty acids. They are the most studied and industrially interesting enzymes, thanks to their versatility to promote a plethora of reactions on a wide range of substrates. In fact, depending on the reaction conditions, they can also catalyze synthesis reactions, such as esterification, acidolysis and transesterification. The latter is particularly important for biodiesel production. Biodiesel can be produced from animal fats or vegetable oils and is considered as a biodegradable, non-toxic and renewable energy source. The use of lipases as industrial catalysts is subordinated to their immobilization on insoluble supports, to allow multiple uses and use in continuous processes, but also to stabilize the enzyme, intrinsically prone to denaturation with consequent loss of activity. Among the materials that can be used for lipase immobilization, mesoporous silica nanoparticles represent a good choice due to the combination of thermal and mechanical stability with controlled textural characteristics. Moreover, the presence of abundant surface hydroxyl groups allows for easy chemical surface functionalization. This latter aspect has the main importance since lipases have a high affinity with hydrophobic supports. The objective of this work is to provide an overview of the recent progress of lipase immobilization in mesoporous silica nanoparticles with a focus on biodiesel production.

Enzymatic interesterification effect on the physicochemical and technological properties of cupuassu seed fat and inaja pulp oil blends

The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of enzymatic interesterification process in blends with different proportions (w:w) of cupuassu fat and inaja oil (80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50 and 40:60). The interesterification reaction was carried out at 65 °C, agitation at 150 rpm, and enzyme concentration of 5% (w/w), for 6 h. Acidity index, melting point, consistency and solid fat content of the blends were characterized before and after the interesterification process. Fatty acid content was characterized in cupuassu fat and inaja oil and, nutritional quality indexes of atherogenicity (AI) and thrombogenicity (TI) were calculated. Enzymatic interesterification promoted a decrease in acidity (<0.6%) and changes in the blends' properties, making them suitable for food product preparation. All esterified blends (cupuassu seed fat:inaja pulp oil) presented suitable consistency properties, plasticity and spreadability to be used for the preparation of functional, table and soft table types of margarine and used in food preparation such as special fats.

Modification of palm-based oil blend via interesterification: Physicochemical properties, crystallization behaviors and oxidative stabilities

Interesterification is widely employed as an effective technique to modify oils and fats. This study utilizes palm-based oil (palm olein: palm kernel oil: palm stearin, 5:3:2, w/w/w) as the raw material for the interesterification process performed in a pilot-scale packed bed reactor. Enzymatic interesterification (EIE) was catalyzed by Lipozyme TL IM (813.0 g) at 60℃ with reaction flow rate of 100 mL/min. Chemical interesterification (CIE) was catalyzed using sodium methoxide (0.3 wt%) as catalyst at 105 °C for 30 min. The results showed that the EIE fats had lower solid fat content tendency compared to that of CIE fats. The crystallization onset temperature was higher in EIE fats (23.09℃) compared to that of CIE (19.08℃). The results were consistent with the crystallization kinetics whereby the Avrami K constants of EIE fats were higher than that of CIE fats at various temperatures, indicating rapid crystallization and instant nucleation. Linear growth mechanism was dominant and the crystals formed were smaller in size as observed using polarized light microscope. The interesterified fats exhibited the presence of β and β'-crystals. While most of the tocopherol content was retained after EIE (386.18 ug/g), the molecular distillation process reduced the tocopherol concentration (110.01 ug/g) which consequently affected the oxidative stability. The findings in this work contribute to the fundamental understanding on the differences between CIE and EIE fats and provides data to support the preparation of modified fats via EIE that shows great potential as a controllable technique for industrialization.

Evaluation of enzymatic interesterification in structured triacylglycerols preparation: a concise review and prospect

Enzymatic interesterification (EIE) is one of the emerging technologies in the specialty fats industry. EIE has several advantages over the conventional chemical interesterification method, such that the process has higher flexibility and efficiency, is environmentally friendly and the immobilized enzyme can be recycled besides of the lower requirement for substrate's acid value. The physical properties and nutritional qualities of the fats and oils are modified after EIE, depending on the change in the position of fatty acids on the triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules. Evaluation of the interesterification reaction are important and useful in terms of its technological applications. This paper summarizes the conventional methods and the advancement for evaluating EIE processes, e.g., determination of the change in slip melting points, solid fat contents, TAG with equivalent carbon numbers, and sn-2 fatty acid compositions of the end product. Nonetheless, these methods are not comprehensive because during the EIE process, acyl migration occurs. A novel and convenient evaluation model which is based on the fatty acid distribution on the glycerol-backbone is proposed as a perspective. This model can be employed to monitor the interesterification degree and acyl migration during a regiospecific EIE process, which serves as a reaction rule that can be employed to control and optimize the EIE process, thereby producing structured TAG with desired properties.

Effects of medium- and long-chain fatty acids on acetaminophen- or rifampicin-induced hepatocellular injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is one of the common adverse effects of drug therapy, which is closely associated with oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation response. Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) were reported to relieve inflammation and attenuate oxidative stress. However, little has been known about the hepatoprotective effects of MCFA in DILI. In the present study, acetaminophen (AP) and rifampicin (RFP) were used to establish DILI models in LO2 cells, and the cytoprotective effects of MCFA on hepatocellular injury were investigated. Results showed that the optimal condition for the DILI model was treatment with 10 mM AP or 600 µM RFP for 24 hr. LCFA treatment markedly reduced the cell viability and increased the activities of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase. Meanwhile, LCFA treatment aggravated cell apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress. The mRNA and protein expression levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α) were significantly elevated by LCFA. In contrast, MCFA treatment did not significantly affect cell viability, apoptosis, oxidative, stress and inflammation, and it did not produce the detrimental effects on DILI models. Therefore, we proposed that MCFA may be more safe and suitable than LCFA as nutrition support or the selection of daily dietary oil and fat for the patients with DILI.

Efficient Production of Medium-Chain Structured Phospholipids over Mesoporous Organosulfonic Acid-Functionalized SBA-15 Catalysts

It is highly desirable that efficient recoverable heterogeneous catalysts should be developed to replace the costly biocatalysts used in producing structured phospholipids (SPLs) with medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs). Thus, mesoporous propyl and phenyl sulfonic acid-functionalized SBA-15 materials synthesized via surface modification methods were investigated for the soybean lecithin interesterification with methyl caprate or caprylate. The physicochemical properties of the synthesized solid acids were deeply studied by small-angle X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared and pyridine adsorption, etc. to build the possible structure–performance relationships. The results revealed that amounts of organosulfonic acid groups were successfully grafted onto the SBA-15 support, and most of the surface acid sites contained in the as-prepared organic–inorganic hybrid samples were assigned as strong Brӧnsted acid sites. Notably, the functionalized SBA-15 materials exhibited promising catalytic behaviors in producing MCFA-enriched SPLs under mild conditions (40 °C, 6 h) when compared with commercial Amberlyst-15 and typical phospholipases or lipases, mostly due to their high surface area, ordered structure and adequate Brӧnsted acid sites. Besides, the as-prepared materials could be easily recycled five times without obvious deactivation. This work might shed light on alternative catalysts for SPL production instead of the costly enzymes.