Spatial trends and drivers of marine debris accumulation on shorelines in South Eleuthera, The Bahamas using citizen science

Quantification of litter in cities using a smartphone application and citizen science in conjunction with deep learning-based image processing

Cities are a major source of litter pollution. Determination of the abundance and composition of plastic litter in cities is imperative for effective pollution management, environmental protection, and sustainable urban development. Therefore, here, a multidisciplinary approach to quantify and classify the abundance of litter in urban environments is proposed. In the present study, litter data collection was integrated via the Pirika smartphone application and conducted image analysis based on deep learning. Pirika was launched in May 2018 and, to date, has collected approximately one million images. Visual classification revealed that the most common types of litter were cans, plastic bags, plastic bottles, cigarette butts, cigarette boxes, and sanitary masks, in that order. The top six categories accounted for approximately 80 % of the total, whereas the top three categories accounted for more than 60 % of the total imaged litter. A deep-learning image processing algorithm was developed to automatically identify the top six litter categories. Both precision and recall derived from the model were higher than 75 %, enabling proper litter categorization. The quantity of litter derived from automated image processing was also plotted on a map using location data acquired concurrently with the images by the smartphone application. Conclusively, this study demonstrates that citizen science supported by smartphone applications and deep learning-based image processing can enable the visualization, quantification, and characterization of street litter in cities.

How much does marine litter weigh? A literature review to improve monitoring, support modelling and optimize clean-up activities

The weight of marine litter has been marginally considered in comparison to counting and categorizing items. However, weight determines litter dynamics on water and coasts, and it is an essential parameter for planning and optimizing clean-up activities. This work reviewed 80 publications that reported both the number and weight of beached macro-litter worldwide. On average, a litter item weighed 19.5 ± 20.3 g, with a median weight of 13.4 g. Plastics composed 80% by number and 51% by weight of the global litter bulk. A plastic item weighed 12.9 ± 13.8 g on average, with a median weight of 9 g. The analysis based on continents and on water bodies returned similar values, which can be used to estimate litter weight on beaches from past and future visual census surveys, and from remote sensing imagery. Overall, this work can improve litter monitoring reports and support dynamics modelling, thereby contributing for environmental protection and mitigation efforts.

The collateral effects of COVID-19 on marine pollution

The COVID-19 pandemic has gained significant attention to the intersection of public health crises and environmental challenges, particularly in the context of marine pollution. This paper examines the various impacts of the pandemic on marine environments, focusing on the pollution attributed to single-use plastics (SUPs) and personal protective equipment (PPE). Drawing on a comprehensive analysis of literature and case studies, the paper highlights the detrimental effects of increased plastic waste on marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. Statistical data and graphical representations reveal the scale of plastic pollution during the pandemic, emphasizing the urgent need for mitigation strategies. The study evaluates innovative monitoring techniques and future recommendations, emphasizing stakeholder collaboration in sustainable waste management. By broadening geographic examples and comparative analyses, it provides a global perspective on the pandemic's impact, highlighting the importance of international cooperation for safeguarding marine ecosystems.

Prevailing wind patterns influence the distribution of plastics in small urban lakes

Cities generate large amounts of plastic waste and thus are often major sources of plastic pollution. Microplastics (particles < 5 mm) are a growing ecological concern as they are readily transported through the environment by wind, flowing water, and other transport processes. Here, we report the findings of an intensive field study that tested associations between prevailing winds and the distribution of plastic pollution around urban lakes (n = 20 lakes) in offshore sediments, shoreline sediments, and surface waters. We tested and found support for the hypothesis that prevailing winds influence the distribution of plastics around lakes. Overall, lakes had greater proportions of macroplastics (i.e., large plastic trash) and microplastics in sediments collected along northern lake shorelines. Notably, we found that macroplastic trash and total microplastics were, respectively, 1.7 and 3 times more abundant in sediments sampled along northern shorelines. Contrary to our expectation, we also found that microplastics in offshore sediments were in greater proportions along western lake shorelines, indicating that wind-driven processes might not explain the distribution of plastics in all lake zones. Furthermore, we observed no discernable patterns within lake surface waters and only captured a handful of suspended microplastic fragments and films from the water column. Overall, our findings revealed that the heterogeneous accumulation of plastic pollution at a lake is influenced, in part, by wind-driven processes. Moreover, these patterns extend across a network of lakes that were distributed across an urbanized landscape.

Big brands impact small islands: Sources of plastic pollution in a remote and protected archipelago

Remote islands are disproportionately affected by plastic pollution, often originating from elsewhere, so it is important to understand its origins, to stop debris entering the ocean at their source. We investigated the origins of beached plastic drink bottles in the Chagos Archipelago, a large remote Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Indian Ocean. We recorded the brands, countries of manufacture, types of drink, and ages of plastic bottles and their lids. The prevalent type of drink was water, with items mostly manufactured in Indonesia, China, and the Maldives. The main brands were Danone and the Coca-Cola Company. We deduced that 10 % of the items originated from ships passing the archipelago, including all the items manufactured in China. The identification of the brands creating plastic pollution in remote MPAs with high biodiversity supports extended producer responsibility, one of the proposed policy development areas of the Global Plastics Treaty.

Anthropogenic and environmental factors partly co-determine the level, composition and temporal variation of beach debris

The accumulation of human-derived waste on our coasts is an escalating phenomenon, yet the relative importance and potential interactions among its main drivers are not fully understood. We used citizen-science standardized collections to investigate how anthropogenic and environmental factors influence the level, composition, and temporal variation of beach debris. An average of 58 kg and 803 items/100 m, dominated by single-use items of land (rather than sea) origin, were collected in the 881 beaches sampled. Interactions between anthropogenic and environmental factors (e.g., human use × beach substrate) were the strongest predictors of beach debris, accounting for 34% of the variance explained in its amount and composition. Beach debris showed a highly stochastic temporal variation (adjusted R2 = 0.05), partly determined by interactions between different local and landscape anthropogenic pressures. Our results show that both environmental and anthropogenic factors (at the local and landscape scale) co-determine the level and composition of beach debris. We emphasize the potential of citizen-science to inform environmental policy, showing that land-originated single-use items dominate beach debris, and the importance of considering their multiple anthropogenic and environmental drivers to improve our low predictive power regarding their spatio-temporal distribution.

Floating marine debris influx in the intertidal zone of offshore islands in Bangladesh: A case study of Manpura Island

Marine Debris is all-pervading in the world's oceans. In this research, for the first time, Floating Marine Debris (FMD) accumulation in the intertidal zone of Manprua island, an offshore island of Bangladesh, is reported. The assessment has been done by integrating both physical investigations and questionnaire survey. The Study shows high debris density on the windward and river-facing sides of the island. The density of debris items in this area varies from 550,000 to 60,000 items per km2 (8.5 to 0.08 g/m2) for transect samples during low tide and 350,000 to 60,000 items per km2 (5.76 to 1.20 g/m2) for net samples during high tide. However, the most damaging debris items are uprooted trees and water hyacinths because they hinder fishing activities. This study provides baseline information on FMD in the Meghna Estuary, which can be used as a reference for sustainable monitoring and management of marine pollution.

Legacy community science data suggest reduced beached litter in response to a container deposit scheme at a local scale

Marine debris is causing significant environmental harm. Legislation is being implemented to reduce litter, including schemes like container deposit legislation that incentivize the return of commonly littered items for recycling. While there is a suggestion that these schemes reduce litter, no study has examined the long-term impact on the local environment before and after implementation. This study analyses community science data from 8 years prior to the implementation of a container deposit scheme, paired with 3 years of data afterwards, to assess the scheme's effectiveness at a local scale. Although using legacy datasets limits the generalizability of the conclusions compared to dedicated studies, the findings strongly indicate that container deposit schemes effectively manage targeted containers but have little impact on overall waste abundances. Long-term datasets like these are invaluable for assessing the impact of management efforts.

Beach litter occurrence along the shoreline of Mabini Protected Landscape and Seascape, Davao de Oro, Philippines

This study aimed to assess the occurrence of marine litter on selected beaches in Mabini Protected Landscape and Seascape, Davao de Oro, Philippines, where records have not been published yet. Beach litter was collected during low tide from four beaches in June 2023. Results revealed that plastics were the most abundant type of litter at 82.22 %. Most plastic materials sampled were plastic fragments and packaging at 37.72 % and 18.24 %, respectively. An independent t-test showed that rocky beaches had significantly higher litter density at 1.38 items m-2 than sandy beaches at 0.45 items m-2, t(10) = 4.281, p = 0.001. The present results indicated that the actual cleanliness of the Mabini coast is low, suggesting that clean-up strategies from various stakeholders are needed.

Cleaning Up without Messing Up: Maximizing the Benefits of Plastic Clean-Up Technologies through New Regulatory Approaches

As the global plastics crisis grows, numerous technologies have been invented and implemented to recover plastic pollution from the environment. Although laudable, unregulated clean-up technologies may be inefficient and have unintended negative consequences on ecosystems, for example, through bycatch or removal of organic matter important for ecosystem functions. Despite these concerns, plastic clean-up technologies can play an important role in reducing litter in the environment. As the United Nations Environment Assembly is moving toward an international, legally binding treaty to address plastic pollution by 2024, the implementation of plastic clean-up technologies should be regulated to secure their net benefits and avoid unintended damages. Regulation can require environmental impact assessments and life cycle analysis to be conducted predeployment on a case-by-case basis to determine their effectiveness and impact and secure environmentally sound management. During operations catch-efficiency and bycatch of nonlitter items, as well as waste management of recovered litter, should be documented. Data collection for monitoring, research, and outreach to mitigate plastic pollution is recommended as added value of implementation of clean-up technologies.

Identifying opportunities for harmonized microplastics and mesoplastics monitoring for Caribbean Small Island Developing States using a spatiotemporal assessment of beaches in South Eleuthera, The Bahamas

Increasing quantities of microplastics and mesoplastics in the marine environment underscore the need for marine microplastics to be included in the global Plastics Treaty to end plastic pollution. Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS) lack harmonized microplastics monitoring protocols, leaving them data deficient at the science-policy interface required for treaty negotiations. This baseline study assessed spatial and seasonal abundance and distribution of microplastic (1-5 mm) and mesoplastic (5-25 mm) on 16 beaches with three coastal exposures (Atlantic Ocean, Exuma Sound, Bahama Bank) in South Eleuthera, The Bahamas and its implications for Caribbean SIDS. Microplastics were the dominant debris type sampled (74 %) across all beaches, with significant spatial (p = 0.0005) and seasonal (p = 0.0363) differences in abundance and distribution across study sites. This baseline study identifies opportunities required for developing harmonized microplastics and mesoplastics monitoring by Caribbean SIDS to collect data to help support global plastics treaty negotiations.

Effectiveness of hierarchical Bayesian models for citizen science data with missing values: A case study on the factors influencing beach litter in Shimane Prefecture, Japan

Citizen science can play an important role in addressing the issue of marine debris. However, citizen science data are often composed of inconsistent methods compared to data collected by experts. In this study, we applied beach cleanup data, collected in different survey years at different survey sites, to a hierarchical Bayesian model to elucidate the factors affecting the distribution of beach litter. The results showed the model accounting for differences between years had a smaller Watanabe-Akaike Information criterion than the model that did not account for it, indicating better accuracy of the model. The amount of beach litter was influenced by current velocity and bay openness, and these effects varied across years. The results indicate that citizen science data, which may contain missing values due to various constraints such as economic and human resources, can make an important contribution toward solving marine debris issues by flexible statistical analysis methods.

Anthropogenic marine litter: An approach to environmental quality for India's southeastern Arabian Sea coast

Anthropogenic marine litter (AML), mainly plastic, is a global concern that is persistent and widespread. To prevent and mitigate this threat, we need to understand the magnitude and source of AML. There is limited knowledge about AML pollution on the Indian Coast. In this context, the present study examined the distribution, abundance, typology, and beach quality based on AML along 22 beaches on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Sea. A total of 4911 AML items were classified into 9 categories, weighing 16.79 kg, and retrieved from a total area of 8000 m². The mean abundance and weight of AML in the current study were 0.45 ± 0.34 items/m² and 1.53 ± 0.92 g/m², respectively. Thottapally showed the most abundant AML among the studied beaches with 0.96 items/m², followed by Azheekkal with 0.73 items/m². Plastic, being the most common item, accounts for 77.6 % of all items and has a mean density of 0.35 items/m² comprising hard plastic (22 %), thermocol (13 %), food wrappers (7 %), cigarette butts (7 %), plastic rope (6 %), and plastic cutlery (6 %). Hazardous anthropogenic litter (HAL) was maximum at Thottapally (17.71 %; 85 out of 480 items collected). Based on the cleanliness of beaches, they are graded "moderately clean" (63 %) by the General Index (GI), "clean" (54 %), and "moderately clean" (40 %) as calculated by the Clean Coast Index (CCI). Hazardous Anthropogenic Beach Litter Index (HABLI) classifies 72 % of beaches as "moderately safe", while the Environmental Status Index (ESI) rates 68 % of beaches as "mediocre". Besides, model simulations demonstrated the pathways of AML propagation, which correlate to the littoral and coastal current flow patterns over the region. Land-based activities were the crucial factors influencing AML distribution. The study highlighted the need for effective regional litter management strategies, policy instruments for the litter impact pathways, economic, regulatory, and behavioural management tools, which were also discussed.

Sedimentological features of asbestos cement fragments in coastal environments (Taranto, southern Italy)

Asbestos cement materials (ACMs) are widespread in coastal environments as result of illegal dumping activities. This study focuses on the Taranto area (Italy) in the Mar Grande basin within the northern sector of the Ionian Sea. The complex history of dumping building materials containing high amounts of ACM into the coastal zone, and the erosion, transport and deposition in Marechiaro Bay is a serious environmental hazard. An interdisciplinary research methodology defines the temporal dumping succession, and the erosional processes and phases, the diffusion of ACM, the mineralogical characteristics, and existing physical status of the ACM. A multiscale investigation was conducted. Results show that from 1992 to 2000 a significant increment of dumping operations have occurred. The current cliff has been subject to erosion and redeposition phases, developing a new beach composed of these polluted man-made sediments. The findings persuade the local authorities to close the beach requiring remediation interventions.

Marine Litter Tracking System: A Case Study with Open-Source Technology and a Citizen Science-Based Approach

It is well established that most of the plastic pollution found in the oceans is transported via rivers. Unfortunately, the main processes contributing to plastic and debris displacement through riparian systems is still poorly understood. The Marine Litter Drifter project from the Arno River aims at using modern consumer software and hardware technologies to track the movements of real anthropogenic marine debris (AMD) from rivers. The innovative "Marine Litter Trackers" (MLT) were utilized as they are reliable, robust, self-powered and they present almost no maintenance costs. Furthermore, they can be built not only by those trained in the field but also by those with no specific expertise, including high school students, simply by following the instructions. Five dispersion experiments were successfully conducted from April 2021 to December 2021, using different types of trackers in different seasons and weather conditions. The maximum distance tracked was 2845 km for a period of 94 days. The activity at sea was integrated by use of Lagrangian numerical models that also assisted in planning the deployments and the recovery of drifters. The observed tracking data in turn were used for calibration and validation, recursively improving their quality. The dynamics of marine litter (ML) dispersion in the Tyrrhenian Sea is also discussed, along with the potential for open-source approaches including the "citizen science" perspective for both improving big data collection and educating/awareness-raising on AMD issues.

Baseline marine litter abundance and distribution on Saint Martin Island, Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh

Baseline marine litter abundance and distribution on Saint Martin Island, Bay of Bengal, were assessed. Seventy-two transects (100-150 m) along 12 km of coastline were surveyed for litter items every two weeks for two months. The most abundant items were polythene bags, food wrappers, plastic bottles/caps, straws, styrofoam, plastic cups, plastic fragments, fishing nets, clothes, and rubber buoys. Tourism, local markets, hotels, domestic waste, and fishing activities were primary sources of marine litter. According to the mean clean coast index (CCI), all transects were clean, of which 11.3 % and 14.1 % of sandy beaches and rocky shores with sandy beaches were reported dirty, respectively. Northern Saint Martin Island comprised sandy beaches (2.8 %) and was extremely dirty. In addition, plastic abundance index (PAI) analysis showed that 24 % of sites, out of 72 sites, were under "very high abundance", 33 % were "high abundance", 33 % showed "moderate abundance", and 4 % were classified as "low abundance". Establishing baseline results of marine litter abundance and distribution on Saint Martin Island may help improve island conservation and mitigation strategies (e.g., improved waste management, beach cleaning activities to raise public awareness, local government litter reduction policies, and increase local pro-environmental behavioral change).

Using long-term citizen science data to distinguish zones of debris accumulation

Studies show that a driver of coastal debris is the rate between debris deposition and resuspension; however, the influence of beach zone topography on the distribution of debris remains poorly understood. Using five years of marine debris data collected by the COASST citizen science program, we explored the spatiotemporal trends in debris abundance within two regions of the United States Pacific Northwest and investigated whether higher debris loads are associated with beach zones that have a higher propensity to trap debris. We found that beaches with larger wood zones had higher debris loads, adding to the growing evidence that backshore areas of beaches act as sinks for debris. Higher debris loads were also associated with beaches that had larger wrack zones suggesting that onshore transport from the marine reservoir is a dominant source of debris. This study provides a long-term baseline of marine debris which managers could use to inform source reduction interventions.

Spatial variation of plastic debris on important turtle nesting beaches of the remote Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean

We report Anthropogenic Marine Debris (AMD) in Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, globally amongst the most isolated island groups. AMD on 14 island beaches in five atolls were surveyed in 2019 using two techniques: Marine Debris Tracker (MDT) along littoral vegetation and photoquadrats in open beach. Over 60 % of AMD in both beach zones was composed of plastics, especially bottles and fragments (mean = 44.9 %, 27.2 %, range = 16.5-73.2 %, 4.8-55.9 % respectively in vegetation; mean = 28.7 %, 31.5 %, range = 17.7-40.7 %, 11.6-60.0 % respectively in open beach). The density of plastic debris in littoral vegetation (MDT data: 1995 bottles, 3328 fragments per 100 m²) was 10-fold greater than in open beach (photoquadrat data: 184 bottles, 106 fragments per 100 m²). Significant latitudinal variation in vegetation AMD occurred (8-fold greater in southern atolls, p = 0.006). AMD varied within island zones: most debris observed on oceanside beaches (oceanside vs lagoon, W = 365, p < 0.001; ocean vs island tip, W = 107, p = 0.034). Standardisation of surveys using the open-source MDT App is recommended. Debris accumulation hotspots overlapped with sea turtle nesting habitat, guiding future beach clean-up prioritisation.

Achieving greater policy coherence and harmonisation for marine litter management in the North-East Atlantic and Wider Caribbean Region

The effects of marine litter pose ecological, economic and optional value threats to the countries and territories on the margins of the Atlantic Basin. As the abundance of transboundary marine litter increases, this in turn has triggered the development of marine litter policy action plans and inter-regional collaboration. The OSPAR Commission and Cartagena Convention of North-East Atlantic (NEA) and the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) respectively, have established a memorandum of understanding to facilitate collaboration for enhanced marine litter management. In light of this development, this paper conducts a scoping review of management measures of marine litter within these regions as well as a coherence analysis between their regional action plans (RAPs). The analysis uses a proactive framework based on a modified categorization by Chen (2015) and Williams and Rangel-Buitrago (2019) for comparatively analyse management measures. The analytical categorizations include legislation and enforcement measures, prevention, removal, monitoring, research, information management and exchange and education and outreach. Although specific approaches differed among the regions depending upon geographical and individual situations, each categorization included detailed management activities except for prevention in NEA and removal in the WCR. The comparative analysis demonstrates that there are opportunities for inter-regional cooperation, knowledge sharing and overall enhanced and informed marine litter management.

Spatio-temporal variations of litter on Qingdao tourist beaches in China

Beaches are an integral part of coastal tourism, but they are deteriorated by the beachgoers and recreational activities due to lack of adequate beach environmental awareness and management. Litter is widely distributed in marine and coastal environment and has been considered a severe concern. In China investigations to determine the beach litter abundance and pollution level are limited. The aim of this study is to estimate spatio-temporal distribution and composition of litter on 10 well-known Qingdao tourist beaches, involving pollution level by beach quality indexes. Beach litter was collected within an area of 25 × 25 m² in both summer (May, June and July) and winter (Nov, Dec and Jan) seasons, and was classified into eight categories. The abundance of beach litter was found higher in summer (0.13 ± 0.04 items/m²) than in winter (0.04 ± 0.01 items/m²). Overall, the percentage of plastics were higher in both summer (23.48%) and winter (24.04%) than that of other litter categories. Based on Clean Coast Index, 70% of beaches were very clean, 25% clean, and 5% moderately clean. Beach Grade Index showed that 15% beaches were very good, 5% good, 55% fair, and 25% poor. 85% beaches constituted some quantity of hazardous litter and 15% had no hazardous litter for Hazardous Items index. The findings suggest that the sources of beach litter along Qingdao beaches mainly come from the recreational and tourist activities. The substantial quantity of litter is also being transported by ocean (tides or current), which are finally deposited along beachfront. Despite regular cleaning operation along most of Qingdao beaches, suggested management practices involve mitigation measures, source reduction, change in littering behavior to improve further quality of beaches.

Virtual Methodology for Household Waste Characterization During The Pandemic in An Urban District of Peru: Citizen Science for Waste Management

The Covid-19 pandemic has caused the alteration of many aspects of the solid waste management chain, such as variations in the waste composition, generation and disposal. Various studies have examined these changes with analysis of integrated waste management strategies; qualitative studies on perceived variations and statistical evaluations based on waste collected or disposed in landfills. Despite this information there is a need for updated data on waste generation and composition, especially in developing countries. The objective of this article is to develop a data sampling and analytical approach for the collection of data on household waste generation and composition during the pandemic; and, in addition, estimate the daily generation of masks in the study area. The proposed methodology is based on the principles of citizen science and utilizes virtual tools to contact participants, and for the training and collection of information. The study participants collected the information, installed segregation bins in their homes and trained their relatives in waste segregation. The article presents the results of the application of the methodology in an urban district of Lima (Peru) in August 2020. The results suggest an apparent decrease in household waste per capita and a slight increase in plastics composition in the study area. It is estimated that each participant generates 0.124 masks per day and 0.085 pairs of gloves per day. The method developed and results presented can be used as a tool for public awareness and training on household waste characterization and segregation. Furthermore it can provide the necessary evidence to inform policy directives in response household waste issues and Covid-19 restrictions.

Quantity and type of coastal debris pollution in Taiwan: A rapid assessment with trained citizen scientists using a visual estimation method

Ongoing monitoring of the distribution and composition of coastal debris is a prerequisite for efficient management and cleanups. Therefore, we conducted a rapid assessment of coastal debris along the 1210 km coastline of Taiwan using a visual estimation method. Forty-nine citizen scientists were intensively trained to correctly identify the volume and types of debris. At 121 sampling locations randomly placed along Taiwan's coastline, the citizen scientists recorded the pollution level and the three most abundant debris types within a 100-m transect during four surveys in 2018-2019. Averaging over the four surveys, the mean amount of coastal debris was estimated to be 406.6 kg/km, and the three most abundant debris types were plastic bottles, foamed plastics, and fishing nets and ropes. Using a statistical test which avoids spatial pseudoreplication, we showed that north-facing coastlines had significantly higher pollution levels than the other coastlines, which we suggest is deposited there during strong winter winds. We also showed that fishery-related debris was a much more important part of coastal debris when the volume of it was determined instead of just the number of items. Mean pollution levels were further associated with wind speed, coastline type, and the distance to presumed pollution sources. Our results compare well with similar surveys conducted in Japan and South Korea. In each country, the debris was highly aggregated, which means it was concentrated in a few highly polluted localities. Therefore, the visual estimation method can effectively guide cleanup efforts to the most polluted areas and also reliably generate long-term monitoring data.

Beach debris quantity and composition around the world: A bibliometric and systematic review

Anthropogenic pollution of marine ecosystems caused by beach debris has become a serious environmental concern in the last few decades. Regarding the raising production of beach debris, the present work aimed to summarize the quantity and quality of beach debris reported from different beach areas of the world. Also, a bibliometric analysis was used to analyze research trends and upgrade knowledge in this research area. Using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA), the eligible papers reviewed regarding beach debris abundance along with their composition from 2010, which were extracted from the Scopus database. The results of the study showed that plastic items represented the dominant material (61.25%), followed by food (5.88%), wood (5.78%), metals (5.2%), and glass (5%). Further, the beaches studied were classified into three degrees, including highly polluted (31.5 items/m2), moderate polluted (3.47 items/m2), and low polluted (0.37 items/m2), based on the average abundance of debris.

The status of marine debris/litter and plastic pollution in the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem (CLME): 1980-2020

Plastic pollution is one of several anthropogenic stressors putting pressure on ecosystems of the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem (CLME). A 'Clean Ocean' is one of the ambitious goals of the United Nations (UN) Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. If this is to be realized, it is imperative to build upon the work of the previous decades (1980-2020). The objectives of the present study were to assess the state of knowledge about: (i) the distribution, quantification, sources, transport and fate of marine debris/litter and microplastics in the coastal/marine environment of the CLME and, (ii) the effects of plastics on biodiversity. Snapshots, i.e., peer-reviewed studies and multi-year (1991-2020) marine debris data from International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) events, indicated that plastic debris was a persistent issue in multiple ecosystems and environmental compartments of the CLME. Collectively, a suite of approaches (debris categorization, remote sensing, particle tracking) indicated that plastic debris originated from a combination of land and marine-based sources, with the former more significant than the latter. Rivers were identified as an important means of transporting mismanaged land-based waste to the marine environment. Oceanic currents were important to the transport of plastic debris into, within and out of the region. Plastic debris posed a threat to the biodiversity of the CLME, with specific biological, physical, ecological and chemical effects being identified. Existing data can be used to inform interventions to mitigate the leakage of plastic waste to the marine environment. Given the persistent and transboundary nature of the issue, further elucidation of the problem, its causes and effects must be prioritized, while simultaneously harmonizing regional and international approaches.

Baseline Marine Litter Surveys along Vietnam Coasts Using Citizen Science Approach

Marine litter is a significant threat to the marine environment, human health, and the economy. In this study, beach litter surveys along Vietnamese coasts were conducted in a local context to quantify and characterize marine litter using the modified GESAMP marine litter monitoring guideline. A total of 21,754 items weighing 136,820.2 g was recorded across 14 surveys from September 2020 to January 2021. Plastic was the most abundant type of litter by both quantity (20,744 items) and weight (100,371.2 g). Fishing gear 1 (fishing plastic rope, net pieces, fishing lures and lines, hard plastic floats) and soft plastic fragments were the most frequently observed items (17.65% and 17.24%, respectively). This study not only demonstrates the abundance and composition of marine litter in Vietnam, it also provides valuable information for the implementation of appropriate preventive measures, such as the redesign of collection, reuse, and recycling programs, and informs policy and priorities, with a focus on action and investment in Vietnam. Moreover, insights from this study indicate that citizen science is a useful approach for collecting data on marine litter in Vietnam.

First landscape-scale survey of the background level of COVID-19 face mask litter: Exploring the potential for citizen science data collection during a 'pollution pilgrimage' of walking a 250-km roadside transect

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated a global problem through the cavalier or deliberate disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) by the general public. This has raised concerns that the billions of discarded face masks pose a threat to wildlife through entanglement or, when broken down, through ingestion of derived microplastics. Previous quantitative surveys of the magnitude of such litter have focused on areas where people congregate, such as tourist beaches and large cities. The present survey is the first to provide data on the background level of face mask litter through a landscape of variable land-use. A 250-km transect along an historic road between Montreal and Quebec City (Canada) was surveyed during a walking pilgrimage, revealing an overall density of 0.0001 ± 0.00006 face masks m^-2. Average densities were significantly higher in areas of human occupation compared to agricultural and forested rural land. However, there was no significant correlation between population size of communities and the number of face masks encountered, nor in litter extent and proximity to municipalities. This may be due to the confounding influence of inter-community differences in scheduled street cleaning operations. Seventy-six percent of face masks were of the disposable surgical variety, with the remaining 24% being reusable cloth masks. This, and the fact that only 10% of the former and none of the latter exhibited broken ear straps, insinuates that the litter could be due to accidental loss rather than inappropriate discarding by individuals en route. Scaling-up these findings in relation to the global road network generates a preliminary background estimate for roadside litter of >17 million face masks. The present study endorses the call made by others to engage citizen scientists in surveying PPE litter, in particular, the thousands who each year walk the medieval pilgrimage routes through the landscape of Europe.

Litter in coastal and marine environments

Litter is one of the most pervasive and fastest-growing anthropogenic alterations of the World's coasts and oceans. Along with climate change, litter has been identified as one of humankind's most critical environmental problems that demand urgent solutions. Litter magnitudes and distribution, and the related detrimental environmental effects, have been documented in all existing coastal and marine environments (e.g., beaches, dunes, abyssal plains and submarine canyons, among others). Litter's presence is now so ubiquitous in the environment that it serves as a geological indicator of the Anthropocene. As part of the solution to this out-of-hand problem, Marine Pollution Bulletin has produced this Special Issue entitled "Litter in Coastal and Marine Environments". This collection of 37 papers provides a focal point for such related current studies and, in part, seeks to discuss implementing specific management strategies under different scenarios. No single solution exists to cope with the litter issue. However, legally binding global governance that will effectively limit and control the magnitude of litter pollution is greatly needed. The topical range of this collection of papers includes case studies focussing on litter types (mainly dominated by plastics), sources, impacts and solutions.

Is conscientious beachcombing the key to 'unlock' marine plastic pollution trends through citizen science? A case study from Cockburn Sound, Western Australia

Despite the global implementation of plastic waste reduction policies and bans on single use plastics (SuPs), their effectiveness for protecting marine ecosystems remains unclear. Frequent monitoring could confirm policy effectiveness, but this is difficult due to resourcing and logistic constraints. This study tested a 'beach litter' beachcombing citizen science approach that could overcome some constraints. Between November 2018 and January 2021, 168 beach visits led to the collection of 12,659 pieces of litter from a beach in Western Australia. Litter was predominantly plastic (87%) and mostly associated with fishing/boating (34%). Significant reductions in six types of litter, including fishing/boating items, balloons, and straws were detected and four coincided with local government waste mitigation measures. We show potential to harness conscientious beachcombers as citizen scientists to help evaluate plastic policy impact. Furthermore, we propose how to harness this effort and increase spatial and temporal coverage of marine plastic pollution monitoring.

Deposition rates and residence time of litter varies among beaches in the Lofoten archipelago, Norway

A considerable portion of marine litter pollutes the world's coastlines. Its accumulation on beaches represents the product of deposition and retention, processes which are not well understood. A mark-recapture study was performed with a two-week sampling interval at three sites in Lofoten, Norway. Deposition and retention vary over relatively small spatial scales (approx. 13 km radius). No correlation was found among sites in the timing of high and low deposition events, suggesting these are governed by local factors. Contrastingly, the correlation in the timing of high and low retention events was generally stronger among sites, suggesting these may be affected by regional factors. The results underline the importance of customising cleanup frequency for different beaches as spatiotemporal variation in the relative importance of deposition and retention dictate the optimal frequency for maximal removal of litter from circulation in the local marine environment, which cannot be discerned from accumulation (i.e., standing stock) alone.

Nano-sized polystyrene plastics toxicity to microalgae Chlorella vulgaris: Toxicity mitigation using humic acid

Polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) can cause toxicity in aquatic organisms, but presence of natural organic matter (NOM) may alter toxicity of PS-NPs. To better understand effects of NOM on acute toxicity of PS-NPs, humic acid (HA) as a model of NOM was added to green microalga Chlorella vulgaris medium in the presence of amino-functionalized polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NH₂). Acute toxicity tests of PS-NH₂ to C. vulgaris biomass and chlorophyll a content showed statistical differences between media treated with different concentrations of PS-NH₂ and control groups (p<0.05). HA significantly mitigated PS-NH₂ toxicity to C. vulgaris biomass and chlorophyll a end-points (p<0.05). Additionally, high HA concentration was more effective than low concentration (10 vs 5 mg/L), showing a greater ameliorative effect on PS-NH₂ acute toxicity (p<0.05). Algae exposed to higher PS-NH₂ concentrations showed greater morphological changes (i.e., diminution of photosynthetic pigments, reduction of algal size and formation of more cellular aggregates). Formation of high amounts of algal aggregates under influence of PS-NH₂ was presumably related to the high electrostatic tendency of these particles (with positively charged surfaces) to C. vulgaris polysaccharide walls (having negative charge). Formation of aggregates was significantly reduced in the presence of HA. HA with dominant negatively charged functional groups (following sorption by PS-NH₂ via reduction of PS-NH₂ zeta potential), could decrease electrostatic attraction between PS-NH₂ and algae, thereby substantially ameliorating cellular aggregation and cell size reduction.

Seasonal deposition of marine debris on an important marine turtle nesting beach in Costa Rica

Marine debris pollution poses a threat for wildlife and can negatively impact the economy of communities whose livelihoods depend on tourism. Playa Norte, in northeastern Costa Rica, is an important nesting ground for four marine turtle species identified as vulnerable or endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is highly polluted but has low human occupancy. We conducted accumulation rate surveys following a standardized marine debris protocol from March 2016 to January 2018. Macro-debris was categorized by size and material type. Of the 191,030 debris items retrieved during the two-year study period, 96.2% of them were plastic. Debris accumulation was higher during the dry season (January - September). This study contributes towards understanding the drivers of marine debris pollution in critical wildlife nesting habitats; and informs managers and the local community on possible strategies to prevent and reduce marine pollution, thereby aiding in tourism derived economies.

Evaluating Canada's single-use plastic mitigation policies via brand audit and beach cleanup data to reduce plastic pollution

Single-use plastics (SUPs) represent a major threat to marine environments and require proactive policies to reduce consumption and mismanagement. Many SUP management strategies exist to reduce SUP use and mitigate environmental impacts, including extended producer responsibility (EPR), deposit-return schemes, SUP bans or taxes, and public outreach and education. This study analyzed brand audit and beach cleanup data in four densely populated Canadian cities (Vancouver, Toronto, Montréal, Halifax) and a remote island (Sable Island) to determine efficacy of ongoing SUP mitigation measures. Cities were found to have similar litter type proportions, and six brands were found to disproportionally contribute to Canadian SUP litter, comprising 39% of branded litter collected. Results confirm that current Canadian SUP management appears to be insufficient to address leakage of SUPs into the environment. Recommendations to strengthen SUP management strategies and mitigate plastic pollution are recommended to improve future Canadian SUP reduction policies.

Environmental and Economic Impacts of Mismanaged Plastics and Measures for Mitigation

The mismanagement of plastic materials has grown to become a mounting global pollution concern that is closely implicated in unsustainable production and consumption paradigms. The ecological, social, and economic impacts of plastic waste mismanagement are currently transboundary in nature and have necessitated numerous methods of government intervention in order to address and mitigate the globalized and multifaceted dilemmas posed by high rates and volumes of plastic waste generation. This review examines the current landscape of a plastics economy which has operated with a linear momentum, employing large quantities of primary resources and disincentivizing the functioning of a robust recycling market for collecting plastic waste and reintegrating it into the consumer market. This contextualizes an increasing plastic pollution crisis that has required global efforts to address and mitigate the ecological risks and socio-economic challenges of mismanaged plastic waste. A timeline of government interventions regarding plastic pollution is described, including numerous international, regional, and local actions to combat plastic waste, and this is followed by an examination of the relevance of the extended producer responsibility principle to improve plastic waste management and obligate industry to assume responsibility in waste collection and recycling.

Citizen science: A way forward in tackling the plastic pollution crisis during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented surge of production, consumption, and disposal of single-use plastics (SUPs) and personal protective equipment (PPE) by the public. This widespread use of mostly plastic items like face masks and disposable gloves has led to global reports of improper disposal of potentially infectious PPE both in our urban and natural environments. Due to international travel restrictions during the pandemic, many research programs targeted at measuring plastic pollution were halted. These disruptions to research programs have stunted the ability to assess the true quantities of SUPs and PPE being mismanaged from the waste stream into the environment. This article calls for increased citizen science participation in collecting plastic pollution data both during and post pandemic. By initiating this dialogue and raising attention to the importance and potential of citizen science data collection, data can be used to develop globally informed plastic pollution mitigation strategies.

Macro marine litter survey of sandy beaches along the Cox's Bazar Coast of Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh: Land-based sources of solid litter pollution

Macro-sized marine litter (>2.5 cm) was collected, characterized, and enumerated along the Cox's Bazar Coast, Bangladesh. Marine litter abundance was converted to density (number of items/m²). Beach cleanliness was evaluated using the clean-coast index (CCI). Plastic polythene bags were the most abundant litter items, followed by plastic cups. Total marine litter abundance was 54,401 ± 184 items. Major sources of marine litter were from tourism, fishery and residential activities. Of 10 sites surveyed, two were classified as dirty, two were moderate, four were clean and two were very clean using the CCI. Marine litter pollution along the Cox's Bazar Coast represents a potential threat to coastal and marine environments. This baseline study will help to establish mitigation strategies that are urgently required to reduce marine litter pollution along the Cox's Bazar Coast.

Low quantities of marine debris at the northern Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia, influenced by visitation and accessibility

Marine debris (MD) is a serious environmental concern globally. Yet, few studies have reported on MD in sanctuary zones of the Indian Ocean. Consequently, coastal transects were conducted to determine MD quantity, composition and distribution at northern Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia. Debris density ranged between 0.004 and 0.02 items m^-2 with the greatest density near Exmouth township. Composition was predominantly plastic (61%) with fishing-related items (25.5%) and plastic fragments/remnants (16%) the most numerous overall. Land-based and general sourced MD accounted for 88% of all debris. Debris levels were significantly lower at sites with higher visitation and increased distance from access points. There was no significant difference between sanctuary and non-sanctuary zones. Although not immune to MD, this study suggests its remote location, environmental awareness and management strategies implemented at Ningaloo Marine Park may be key to its low MD levels.

Stranded marine debris on the touristic beaches in the south of Bali Island, Indonesia: The spatiotemporal abundance and characteristic

Stranded marine debris (MD) has become a hot topic on Bali Island because it threatens coastal tourism sustainability. This study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal abundance and characteristics of MD on 14 touristic beaches in Bali Island. Sampling is carried out twice every season by adapting methods from NOAA's MD program. We found that the average MD abundance and weight were 0.356 ± 0.366 items/m² and 4.057 ± 3.892 g/m², respectively. Plastic dominated the MD based on abundance (86.9%) and weight (40.1%). Plastic bags, straws, and plastic cups are the most common items among plastics. The MD is originated from Indonesia and is dominated by land-based sources. The beaches are categorized as dirty in the rainy seasons and clean in the dry seasons. Statistically, the MD based on abundance, weight, category, source, and level of cleanliness varied significantly between seasons.

Marine debris database development using international best practices: A case study in Vietnam

Marine debris, particularly plastic debris is a ubiquitous global pervasive problem. The international community recognizes that a reduction in plastic debris density is central to sustainable ocean use based on reduction performance metrics. Although many national databases already exist or are being developed, an internationally accepted index of plastic debris density does not currently exist. Standardized methods for monitoring marine debris can help inform policy decisions to reduce sources marine debris and support mitigation effectiveness. Vietnam recently committed to addressing marine debris nationally and internationally and developed ambitious targets to manage and reduce ocean plastic debris, yet Vietnam does not currently have a national marine debris monitoring database. This study identified international best practices and standards; developed a marine plastic database for accurate, efficient information gathering, management, and reporting; and developed a centralized database platform for future marine plastic debris management in Vietnam that can be adapted for other jurisdictions.

Sources of marine litter along the Bulgarian Black Sea coast: Identification, scoring and contribution

The sources of marine litter (ML) pollution along the Bulgarian Black Sea coast in 2019 were identified and categorized to: Public litter, Fishing, Shipping, Sanitary and sewage, Fly tipped, Medical and Non-sourced, following Veiga et al., 2016 approach. Largest was the contribution of Public litter - 48.3% and Non-sourced - 38.5% of the total. Most Public litter items were attributed to recreational activities - 82.9% Public litter Recreation and less to Public litter Smoking-related - 17.1%. Regarding to Non-sourced, the following sub-categories seemed to contribute clearly more: Land (run off) - 8.79% and Tourism beach users - 8.58%. Considerably lower was the contribution of Fishing, Offshore and Shipping. None of the items were attributed to Sewage related. The ML pollution on the individual beaches (10 sites) exhibited largest contribution of Public litter with most significant input of Public litter Recreation, varying from 65.9 to 86.7% between beaches.

Source, sea and sink-A holistic approach to understanding plastic pollution in the Southern Caribbean

Marine plastics are considered to be a major threat to the sustainable use of marine and coastal resources of the Caribbean, on which the region relies heavily for tourism and fishing. To date, little work has quantified plastics within the Caribbean marine environment or examined their potential sources. This study aimed to address this by holistically integrating marine (surface water, subsurface water and sediment) and terrestrial sampling and Lagrangian particle tracking to examine the potential origins, flows and quantities of plastics within the Southern Caribbean. Terrestrial litter and the microplastics identified in marine samples may arise from the maritime and tourism industries, both of which are major contributors to the economies of the Caribbean region. The San Blas islands, Panama had the highest abundance of microplastics at a depth of 25 m, and significantly greater quantities in surface water than recorded in the other countries. Modelling indicated the microplastics likely arose from mainland Panama, which has some of the highest levels of mismanaged waste. Antigua had among the lowest quantities of terrestrial and marine plastics, yet the greatest diversity of polymers. Modelling indicated the majority of the microplastics in Antiguan coastal surface were likely to have originated from the wider North Atlantic Ocean. Ocean currents influence the movements of plastics and thus the relative contributions arising from local and distant sources which become distributed within a country's territorial water. These transboundary movements can undermine local or national legislation aimed at reducing plastic pollution. While this study presents a snapshot of plastic pollution, it contributes towards the void of knowledge regarding marine plastic pollution in the Caribbean Sea and highlights the need for international and interdisciplinary collaborative research and solutions to plastic pollution.

Comparing marine anthropogenic debris on inhabited mainland beaches, coastal islands, and uninhabited offshore islands: A case study from Queensland and the Coral Sea, Australia

Anthropogenic debris (AD) including plastics, foams and fishing debris, are an undesirable accompaniment to beaches worldwide, arriving through direct deposition (littering) and oceanic transport. We investigated the standing stocks of 12 types of AD on inhabited islands, uninhabited islands and mainland locations, and the potential factors relating to AD deposition. We undertook beach-transects and sea-surface trawl surveys; comparing 13 uninhabited offshore islands, four inhabited/touristed coastal islands and 81 mainland beaches in Queensland, Australia. The abundance and type of AD differed between sites. Geographic factors had stronger relationships with AD density on islands than mainland beaches. Hard plastic density was linked with forcing from wind and sea surface currents. Beach width and onshore/side-shore forcing were the most important factors affecting AD loads (predominantly hard plastics) on islands. We found an inverse relationship between the density of beached plastic and plastic floating at the sea surface nearby and suggest that islands may act as a local sink for buoyant plastic.

A baseline analysis of marine debris on southern islands of Belize

Marine debris is a global issue with acute impacts. Using beach transect surveys, this study investigates debris prevalence on 7 islands in the Caribbean country of Belize. 1754 items were cataloged based on object size, form, material, condition, and economic use. Most of the litter was plastics (68.1%). Styrofoam was the second highest in abundance (9.46%), followed by foam/rubber items (8.04%), glass (3.82%), metal (2.57%), and aluminum (1.94%). Most litter was associated with an urban source (74.8%), while 4.2% and 2.1% were linked to industrial and fishing activities respectively. This study provides a novel baseline for future studies in the scarcely studied region, especially as Belize's economy continues in the conscious shift away from single-use plastic and styrofoam products.

Coordination and harmonization of a marine plastic debris monitoring program for beaches in the Wider Caribbean Region: Identifying strategic pathways forward

An aim of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science is to quantify marine plastic debris in the marine environment. This study analyzes peer-reviewed articles on marine debris monitoring conducted on beaches in the Wider Caribbean Region, with a focus on marine plastic debris. Governance and funding regimes for monitoring events were assessed to determine strategies needed for coordinated and harmonized marine plastic debris monitoring in the Wider Caribbean Region. High variation in standardized survey protocols were observed during monitoring events. Standardization of sampling methodology and reporting metrics among other considerations, are needed to establish a regional marine plastic debris monitoring program that can inform policy for the Wider Caribbean Region.

Retrieval of abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing gear in Southwest Nova Scotia, Canada: Preliminary environmental and economic impacts to the commercial lobster industry

Southwest Nova Scotia (SWNS) is Canada's most productive lobster (Homarus americanus) fishing region. Abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) is widespread. This baseline study provides the first preliminary assessment of environmental and economic impacts of ALDFG on the commercial lobster industry in SWNS. Fishers conducted 60 retrieval trips, searched ~1523 km² of the seafloor and removed 7064 kg of ALDFG (comprising 66% lobster traps and 22% dragger cable). Results showed that lost traps continued to capture target and non-target species until gear degraded. A total of 15 different species were released from retrieved ALDFG, including 239 lobsters (67% were market-sized) and seven groundfish (including five species-at-risk). The present findings, combined with information on regional fishing effort and market prices, estimate that commercial losses from ALDFG can exceed $175,000 CAD annually. This baseline assessment provides useful data for government and commercial fishing stakeholders to improve ALDFG management.

Tourists' perception of beach litter and willingness to participate in beach clean-up

While tourists contribute to and suffer the consequences of beach litter, studies on beach clean-up exercises have mostly neglected them and overly focused on resident beach goers. Based on a sample of 685 international tourists in Ghana, this paper examines the perception of international tourists on beach litter and the determinants of their willingness to participate in beach clean-up as an experiential activity during their visits to Ghanaian beaches. The findings reveal that international tourists have negative perceptions of beach litter, constructed along four domains, namely health, recreational activity participation, aesthetic, and coastal environment. Further, sex, age, educational attainment, continent of origin, travel party status, environmental value, and perception of beach litter significantly influence the willingness of the tourists to participate in beach clean-ups. The implications of these findings in the context of beach litter management at coastal resorts and destinations are discussed.

Benthic marine litter in the coastal zone of Bejaia (Algeria) as indicators of anthropogenic pollution

We studied the abundance of seafloor litter in the bay of Bejaia, Algeria, in order to better understand its sources and distribution and provide scientists with the technical basis for further monitoring and reduction measures. Data were collected during trawl surveys dedicated to fishing activity, between 40 and 200m. After each trawl, litter items were manually sorted and analyzed. The highest concentration of 58,998 items/ha was recorded to the east of the bay. Overall, plastic was the dominant component of the litter with 88% of the total amount, in weight. Most of the waste was of terrestrial origin, with rivers and beaches being the main sources due to population density, highly developed tourism during the summer season, and inadequate waste management. Overall, the results provide relevant benchmarks for future monitoring and are discussed in terms of poor waste management, a critical issue in the region.

Marine litter footprint in the Azores Islands: A climatological perspective

Marine litter (ML) consists of any item of anthropogenic origin that has been lost, discarded or intentionally disposed of into the environment, being acknowledged as a worldwide environmental and ecological threat. In the last decade, there has been an attempt across different sectors to tackle, reduce and mitigate sources of litter. In this study, meso and macrodebris between 2 and 30 cm was recorded and classified in two established study areas (Porto Pim and Conceição beaches), throughout five monitoring years (2012-2018). The litter abundance, density and weighted average by abundance were evaluated in eight main categories: plastics, cloths/fabrics, glass, metals, rubber, processed lumber, other and large. Field surveys provided evidence that plastic represented 95% of all litter. ML abundance was treated as an "environmental variable" and used to determine its anomalies, temporal trends and forecasts. Results from this time-series addressed possible periodic oscillations and density peaks of litter. Reference values of ML presence were obtained and could potentially be used for developing a diagnostic tool for anthropogenic pollution in the Azores.

Policy responses to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in the Caribbean

Caribbean economies depend heavily on a healthy marine ecosystem, but the region includes ten of the top global marine polluters per capita. Regional marine pollution is driven by illegal plastic waste dumping due to poor waste management systems with limited recycling, and weak enforcement. Governments recognize the impacts of marine debris on their social and economic well-being and have responded with policies to curb plastic pollution. Most focus on bans of single-use plastic and polystyrene, which comprises ~80% of Caribbean marine litter. However, there is little comparative analysis of policy responses to determine their efficacy. This paper reviews current policies in 13 English-speaking Caribbean countries, exploring tools used and process of implementation. Eleven have introduced legislative policies, with seven including fines and penalties for non-compliance. All successful policies involve multiple tools, including primary stakeholder engagement, sufficient lead time between policy announcement and implementation, and extensive public education campaigns.

Policy responses to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in the Caribbean

Caribbean economies depend heavily on a healthy marine ecosystem, but the region includes ten of the top global marine polluters per capita. Regional marine pollution is driven by illegal plastic waste dumping due to poor waste management systems with limited recycling, and weak enforcement. Governments recognize the impacts of marine debris on their social and economic well-being and have responded with policies to curb plastic pollution. Most focus on bans of single-use plastic and polystyrene, which comprises ~80% of Caribbean marine litter. However, there is little comparative analysis of policy responses to determine their efficacy. This paper reviews current policies in 13 English-speaking Caribbean countries, exploring tools used and process of implementation. Eleven have introduced legislative policies, with seven including fines and penalties for non-compliance. All successful policies involve multiple tools, including primary stakeholder engagement, sufficient lead time between policy announcement and implementation, and extensive public education campaigns.