1
|
Reader KL, Marino FE, Nicholson HD, Risbridger GP, Gold EJ. Role of activin C in normal ovaries and granulosa cell tumours of mice and humans. Reprod Fertil Dev 2019; 30:958-968. [PMID: 29207252 DOI: 10.1071/rd17250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Activins and inhibins play important roles in the development, growth and function of the ovary. Mice lacking inhibin develop granulosa cell tumours in their ovaries that secrete activin A, and these tumours are modulated by increased activin C expression. The aim of the present study was to identify where activin C is expressed in mouse and human ovaries and whether overexpression of activin C modulates normal follicular development in mice. Immunohistochemical staining for the activin βC subunit was performed on sections from mouse and human ovaries and human adult granulosa cell tumours. Stereology techniques were used to quantify oocyte and follicular diameters, and the percentage of different follicular types in ovaries from wild-type mice and those underexpressing inhibin α and/or overexpressing activin C. Staining for activin βC was observed in the oocytes, granulosa cells, thecal cells and surface epithelium of mouse and human ovaries, and in the granulosa-like cells of adult granulosa cell tumours. Overexpression of activin C in mice did not alter follicular development compared with wild-type mice, but it did modulate the development of abnormal early stage follicles in inhibin α-null mice. These results provide further evidence of a role for activin C in the ovary.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Reader
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | | | - Helen D Nicholson
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Gail P Risbridger
- Consortium and Cancer Program Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic. 3800, Australia
| | - Elspeth J Gold
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Persistence of fimbrial tissue on the ovarian surface after salpingectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2017; 217:425.e1-425.e16. [PMID: 28610900 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salpingectomy is recommended as a risk-reducing strategy for epithelial tubo-ovarian cancer. The gold standard procedure is complete tubal excision. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to assess the presence of residual fimbrial/tubal tissue on ovarian surfaces after salpingectomy. STUDY DESIGN Prospective analysis of patients who underwent salpingo-oophorectomy with or without hysterectomy for benign indications, early cervical cancer, or low-risk endometrial cancer at a UK National Health Service Trust. Salpingectomy with or without hysterectomy was performed initially, followed by oophorectomy within the same operation. Separately retrieved tubes and ovaries were sectioned serially and examined completely histologically. The main outcome measure was histologically identified fimbrial/ tubal tissue on ovarian surface. Chi-square/Fisher's exact tests were used to evaluate categoric variables. RESULTS Twenty-five consecutive cases (mean age, 54.8 ± 5.0 years) that comprised 41 adnexae (unilateral, 9; bilateral, 16) were analyzed. Seventeen (68.0%), 5 (20.0%), and 3 (12.0%) procedures were performed by consultant gynecologists, subspecialty/specialist trainees, and consultant gynecologic oncologists, respectively. Twelve of 25 procedures (48.0%) were laparoscopic, and 13 of 25 procedures (52.0%) involved laparotomy. Four of 25 patients (16.0%; 95% confidence interval, 4.5-36.1%) or 4 of 41 adnexae (9.8%; 95% confidence interval, 2.7-23.1%) showed residual microscopic fimbrial tissue on the ovarian surface. Tubes/ovaries were free of adhesions in 23 cases. Two cases had dense adnexal adhesions, but neither had residual fimbrial tissue on the ovary. Residual fimbrial tissue was not associated significantly with surgical route or experience (consultant, 3/20 [15%]; trainee, 1/5 [20%]; P=1.0). CONCLUSION Residual fimbrial tissue remains on the ovary after salpingectomy in a significant proportion of cases and could impact the level of risk-reduction that is obtained.
Collapse
|
3
|
Gold E, Zellhuber-McMillan S, Risbridger G, Marino FE. Regional localization of activin-β A , activin-β C , follistatin, proliferation, and apoptosis in adult and developing mouse prostate ducts. Gene Expr Patterns 2017; 23-24:70-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
|
4
|
Namwanje M, Brown CW. Activins and Inhibins: Roles in Development, Physiology, and Disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2016; 8:cshperspect.a021881. [PMID: 27328872 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a021881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Since their original discovery as regulators of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secretion and erythropoiesis, the TGF-β family members activin and inhibin have been shown to participate in a variety of biological processes, from the earliest stages of embryonic development to highly specialized functions in terminally differentiated cells and tissues. Herein, we present the history, structures, signaling mechanisms, regulation, and biological processes in which activins and inhibins participate, including several recently discovered biological activities and functional antagonists. The potential therapeutic relevance of these advances is also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Namwanje
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Chester W Brown
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030 Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030 Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wijayarathna R, de Kretser DM. Activins in reproductive biology and beyond. Hum Reprod Update 2016; 22:342-57. [PMID: 26884470 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmv058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Activins are members of the pleiotrophic family of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily of cytokines, initially isolated for their capacity to induce the release of FSH from pituitary extracts. Subsequent research has demonstrated that activins are involved in multiple biological functions including the control of inflammation, fibrosis, developmental biology and tumourigenesis. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the roles of activin in reproductive and developmental biology. It also discusses interesting advances in the field of modulating the bioactivity of activins as a therapeutic target, which would undoubtedly be beneficial for patients with reproductive pathology. METHODS A comprehensive literature search was carried out using PUBMED and Google Scholar databases to identify studies in the English language which have contributed to the advancement of the field of activin biology, since its initial isolation in 1987 until July 2015. 'Activin', 'testis', 'ovary', 'embryonic development' and 'therapeutic targets' were used as the keywords in combination with other search phrases relevant to the topic of activin biology. RESULTS Activins, which are dimers of inhibin β subunits, act via a classical TGF-β signalling pathway. The bioactivity of activin is regulated by two endogenous inhibitors, inhibin and follistatin. Activin is a major regulator of testicular and ovarian development. In the ovary, activin A promotes oocyte maturation and regulates granulosa cell steroidogenesis. It is also essential in endometrial repair following menstruation, decidualization and maintaining pregnancy. Dysregulation of the activin-follistatin-inhibin system leads to disorders of female reproduction and pregnancy, including polycystic ovary syndrome, ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, fetal growth restriction, gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia and pre-term birth. Moreover, a rise in serum activin A, accompanied by elevated FSH, is characteristic of female reproductive aging. In the male, activin A is an autocrine and paracrine modulator of germ cell development and Sertoli cell proliferation. Disruption of normal activin signalling is characteristic of many tumours affecting reproductive organs, including endometrial carcinoma, cervical cancer, testicular and ovarian cancer as well as prostate cancer. While activin A and B aid the progression of many tumours of the reproductive organs, activin C acts as a tumour suppressor. Activins are important in embryonic induction, morphogenesis of branched glandular organs, development of limbs and nervous system, craniofacial and dental development and morphogenesis of the Wolffian duct. CONCLUSIONS The field of activin biology has advanced considerably since its initial discovery as an FSH stimulating agent. Now, activin is well known as a growth factor and cytokine that regulates many aspects of reproductive biology, developmental biology and also inflammation and immunological mechanisms. Current research provides evidence for novel roles of activins in maintaining the structure and function of reproductive and other organ systems. The fact that activin A is elevated both locally as well as systemically in major disorders of the reproductive system makes it an important biomarker. Given the established role of activin A as a pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic agent, studies of its involvement in disorders of reproduction resulting from these processes should be examined. Follistatin, as a key regulator of the biological actions of activin, should be evaluated as a therapeutic agent in conditions where activin A overexpression is established as a contributing factor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Wijayarathna
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, 27-31, Wright Street, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - D M de Kretser
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, 27-31, Wright Street, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Reader KL, Gold E. Activins and activin antagonists in the human ovary and ovarian cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 415:126-32. [PMID: 26277402 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Activins are members of the transforming growth factor β superfamily that play an important role in controlling cell proliferation and differentiation in many organs including the ovary. It is essential that activin signalling be tightly regulated as imbalances can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and cancer. This review describes the expression and function of the activins and their known antagonists in both normal and cancerous human ovaries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Reader
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
| | - Elspeth Gold
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
Marino FE, Risbridger G, Gold E. The inhibin/activin signalling pathway in human gonadal and adrenal cancers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 20:1223-37. [DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gau074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
9
|
Gold E, Marino FE, Harrison C, Makanji Y, Risbridger G. Activin-βcreduces reproductive tumour progression and abolishes cancer-associated cachexia in inhibin-deficient mice. J Pathol 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elspeth Gold
- Department of Anatomy; University of Otago; Dunedin New Zealand
| | | | | | | | - Gail Risbridger
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology; Monash University; Clayton Victoria Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hedger MP, Winnall WR. Regulation of activin and inhibin in the adult testis and the evidence for functional roles in spermatogenesis and immunoregulation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 359:30-42. [PMID: 21964464 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Activin A provides a unique link between reproduction and immunity, which is especially significant in the adult testis. This cytokine, together with inhibin B and follistatin acting as regulators of activin A activity, is fundamentally involved in the regulation of spermatogenesis and testicular steroidogenesis. However, activin A also has a much broader role in control of inflammation, fibrosis and immunity. In the Sertoli cell, activin A is regulated by signalling pathways that normally regulate stress and inflammation, signalling pathways that intersect with the classical hormonal regulatory pathways mediated by FSH. Modulation of activin A production and activity during spermatogenesis is implicated in the fine control of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. The immunoregulatory properties of activin A also suggest that it may be involved in maintaining testicular immune privilege. Consequently, elevated activin A production within the testis during inflammation and infection may contribute to spermatogenic failure, fibrosis and testicular damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Hedger
- Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gold E, Risbridger G. Activins and activin antagonists in the prostate and prostate cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 359:107-12. [PMID: 21787836 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Activins are members of the TGF-β super-family. There are 4 mammalian activin subunits (β(A), β(B), β(C) and β(E)) that combine to form functional proteins. The role of activin A (β(A)β(A)) is well characterized and known to be a potent growth and differentiation factor. Two of the activin subunits (β(C) and β(E)) were discovered more recently and little is known about their biological functions. In this review the evidence that activin-β(C) is a significant regulator of activin A bioactivity is presented and discussed. It is concluded that activin-β(C), like other antagonists of activin A, is an important growth regulator in prostate health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elspeth Gold
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Knight PG, Satchell L, Glister C. Intra-ovarian roles of activins and inhibins. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 359:53-65. [PMID: 21664422 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2010] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Granulosa cells are the main ovarian source of inhibins, activins and activin-binding protein (follistatin) while germ (oogonia, oocytes) and somatic (theca, granulosa, luteal) cells express activin receptors, signaling components and inhibin co-receptor (betaglycan). Activins are implicated in various intra-ovarian roles including germ cell survival and primordial follicle assembly; follicle growth from preantral to mid-antral stages; suppression of thecal androgen production; promotion of granulosa cell proliferation, FSHR and CYP19A1 expression; enhancement of oocyte developmental competence; retardation of follicle luteinization and/or atresia and involvement in luteolysis. Inhibins (primarily inhibin A) are produced in greatest amounts by preovulatory follicles (and corpus luteum in primates) and suppress FSH secretion through endocrine negative feedback. Together with follistatin, inhibins act locally to oppose auto-/paracrine activin (and BMP) signaling thus modulating many of the above processes. The balance between activin-inhibin shifts during follicle development with activin signalling prevailing at earlier stages but declining as inhibin and betaglycan expression rise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phil G Knight
- School of Biological Sciences, Hopkins Building, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6UB, UK.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ottley E, Gold E. Insensitivity to the growth inhibitory effects of activin A: An acquired capability in prostate cancer progression. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2012; 23:119-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
14
|
Liu XJ, Zhang FX, Liu H, Li KC, Lu YJ, Wu QF, Li JY, Wang B, Wang Q, Lin LB, Zhong YQ, Xiao HS, Bao L, Zhang X. Activin C expressed in nociceptive afferent neurons is required for suppressing inflammatory pain. Brain 2012; 135:391-403. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awr350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Jun Liu
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Fang-Xiong Zhang
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Hui Liu
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Kai-Cheng Li
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Ying-Jin Lu
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Qing-Feng Wu
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Jia-Yin Li
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Bin Wang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Qiong Wang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Li-Bo Lin
- 3 National Engineering Centre for Biochip at Shanghai, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yan-Qing Zhong
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Hua-Sheng Xiao
- 3 National Engineering Centre for Biochip at Shanghai, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Lan Bao
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Craythorn RG, Winnall WR, Lederman F, Gold EJ, O'Connor AE, de Kretser DM, Hedger MP, Rogers PAW, Girling JE. Progesterone stimulates expression of follistatin splice variants Fst288 and Fst315 in the mouse uterus. Reprod Biomed Online 2011; 24:364-74. [PMID: 22285243 DOI: 10.1016/j.rbmo.2011.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Follistatin, an inhibitor of activin A, has key regulatory roles in the female reproductive tract. Follistatin has two splice variants: FST288, largely associated with cell surfaces, and FST315, the predominant circulating form. The mechanism regulating uterine expression of these variants is unknown. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to measure expression of follistatin splice variants (Fst288, Fst315), the activin bA subunit (Inhba) and the inhibin a subunit (Inha) in uterine tissues during early pregnancy (days 1–4, preimplantation) and in response to exogenous 17b-oestradiol (single s.c. injection) and progesterone (three daily s.c. injections) in ovariectomized mice. Uterine Fst288, Fst315 and Inhba expression increased during early pregnancy, with greater increases in Fst315 relative to Fst288 suggesting differential regulation of these variants. Fst288, Fst315, Inhba and Inha all increased in response to progesterone treatment. Fst288, but not Fst315, mRNA decreased in response to 17b-oestradiol treatment, whereas Inhba increased. A comparison of the absolute concentrations of uterine follistatin mRNA using crossing thresholds indicated that both variants were more highly expressed in early pregnancy in contrast to the hormone treatment models. It is concluded that progesterone regulates uterine expression of both follistatin variants, as well as activin A, during early pregnancy in the mouse uterus
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R G Craythorn
- Centre for Women's Health Research, Monash University Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Hedger MP, Winnall WR, Phillips DJ, de Kretser DM. The regulation and functions of activin and follistatin in inflammation and immunity. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2011; 85:255-97. [PMID: 21353885 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385961-7.00013-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The activins are members of the transforming growth factor β superfamily with broad and complex effects on cell growth and differentiation. Activin A has long been known to be a critical regulator of inflammation and immunity, and similar roles are now emerging for activin B, with which it shares 65% sequence homology. These molecules and their binding protein, follistatin, are widely expressed, and their production is increased in many acute and chronic inflammatory conditions. Synthesis and release of the activins are stimulated by inflammatory cytokines, Toll-like receptor ligands, and oxidative stress. The activins interact with heterodimeric serine/threonine kinase receptor complexes to activate SMAD transcription factors and the MAP kinase signaling pathways, which mediate inflammation, stress, and immunity. Follistatin binds to the activins with high affinity, thereby obstructing the activin receptor binding site, and targets them to cell surface proteoglycans and lysosomal degradation. Studies on transgenic mice and those with gene knockouts, together with blocking studies using exogenous follistatin, have established that activin A plays critical roles in the onset of cachexia, acute and chronic inflammatory responses such as septicemia, colitis and asthma, and fibrosis. However, activin A also directs the development of monocyte/macrophages, myeloid dendritic cells, and T cell subsets to promote type 2 and regulatory immune responses. The ability of both endogenous and exogenous follistatin to block the proinflammatory and profibrotic actions of activin A has led to interest in this binding protein as a potential therapeutic for limiting the severity of disease and to improve subsequent damage associated with inflammation and fibrosis. However, the ability of activin A to sculpt the subsequent immune response as well means that the full range of effects that might arise from blocking activin bioactivity will need to be considered in any therapeutic applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Hedger
- Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash University, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Inhibin/activin expression in human and rodent liver: subunits α and βB as new players in human hepatocellular carcinoma? Br J Cancer 2011; 104:1303-12. [PMID: 21407220 PMCID: PMC3078591 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2011.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Activins and inhibins belong to the TGFβ-superfamily, which controls cell proliferation and differentiation in many organs. Activin A, the dimer of inhibin βA subunit, acts strongly anti-proliferative in hepatocytes. Little is known on the other activin/inhibin subunits in human liver and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Methods: We studied the expression of the complete inhibin family α, βA, βB, βC, βE in normal liver, tumour-adjacent and HCC tissue, 12 additional organs and rodent liver. A total of 16 HCC and 10 disease-free livers were analysed. Expression of inhibin subunits was determined by qRT–PCR, normalised to RNA input and by geNorm algorithm, and confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Results: Remarkably, βA expression was not decreased in HCC. Similarly, βC and βE exhibited no major changes. In contrast, inhibin α, barely detectable in normal liver, was strongly increased in tumour-adjacent liver and dramatically enhanced in HCC. βB was strongly enhanced in some HCC. At variance with human liver, rodent liver showed higher inhibin α and βC expression, but βA was somewhat, and βB dramatically lower. Conclusions: Upregulation of inhibin α – and possibly of βB – may shield HCC cells from anti-proliferative effects of activin A. Dramatic variations between humans and rodents may reflect different functions of some inhibins/activins.
Collapse
|
18
|
Weissenbacher T, Brüning A, Kimmich T, Makovitzky J, Gingelmaier A, Mylonas I. Immunohistochemical labeling of the inhibin/activin betaC subunit in normal human placental tissue and chorionic carcinoma cell lines. J Histochem Cytochem 2010; 58:751-7. [PMID: 20458061 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.2010.956185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibins and activins are important regulators of the female reproductive system. A novel inhibin subunit, named betaC, has been identified and demonstrated to be expressed in several human tissues. We demonstrate here that inhibin betaC is expressed in human placenta. Expression of the inhibin betaC subunit was demonstrated at the protein level by means of immunohistochemical evaluation and at the transcriptional level by an inhibin betaC-specific RT-PCR analysis. Expression of inhibin betaC was detected in the human chorionic carcinoma cell lines JEG and BeWo. Although the precise role of this novel inhibin subunit in human placenta development and homeostasis is unclear, analogies with other inhibin subunits and the strong expression of betaC in normal human trophoblast cells and chorionic carcinoma cells suggest that betaC may be involved in autocrine/paracrine signaling pathways, angiogenesis, decidualization, and tissue remodeling under normal and malignant conditions. Additionally, JEG and BeWo express betaC and, therefore, can be used as a cell culture model for further functional analysis of this subunit in the human placenta.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Weissenbacher
- First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kreidl E, Oztürk D, Metzner T, Berger W, Grusch M. Activins and follistatins: Emerging roles in liver physiology and cancer. World J Hepatol 2009; 1:17-27. [PMID: 21160961 PMCID: PMC2999257 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v1.i1.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2009] [Revised: 09/10/2009] [Accepted: 09/17/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Activins are secreted proteins belonging to the TGF-β family of signaling molecules. Activin signals are crucial for differentiation and regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis in multiple tissues. Signal transduction by activins relies mainly on the Smad pathway, although the importance of crosstalk with additional pathways is increasingly being recognized. Activin signals are kept in balance by antagonists at multiple levels of the signaling cascade. Among these, follistatin and FLRG, two members of the emerging family of follistatin-like proteins, can bind secreted activins with high affinity, thereby blocking their access to cell surface-anchored activin receptors. In the liver, activin A is a major negative regulator of hepatocyte proliferation and can induce apoptosis. The functions of other activins expressed by hepatocytes have yet to be more clearly defined. Deregulated expression of activins and follistatin has been implicated in hepatic diseases including inflammation, fibrosis, liver failure and primary cancer. In particular, increased follistatin levels have been found in the circulation and in the tumor tissue of patients suffering from hepatocellular carcinoma as well as in animal models of liver cancer. It has been argued that up-regulation of follistatin protects neoplastic hepatocytes from activin-mediated growth inhibition and apoptosis. The use of follistatin as biomarker for liver tumor development is impeded, however, due to the presence of elevated follistatin levels already during preceding stages of liver disease. The current article summarizes our evolving understanding of the multi-faceted activities of activins and follistatins in liver physiology and cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Kreidl
- Emanuel Kreidl, Deniz Öztürk, Thomas Metzner, Walter Berger, Michael Grusch, Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, Vienna A-1090, Austria
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gold E, Jetly N, O'Bryan MK, Meachem S, Srinivasan D, Behuria S, Sanchez-Partida LG, Woodruff T, Hedwards S, Wang H, McDougall H, Casey V, Niranjan B, Patella S, Risbridger G. Activin C antagonizes activin A in vitro and overexpression leads to pathologies in vivo. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2008; 174:184-95. [PMID: 19095948 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2009.080296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Activin A is a potent growth and differentiation factor whose synthesis and bioactivity are tightly regulated. Both follistatin binding and inhibin subunit heterodimerization block access to the activin receptor and/or receptor activation. We postulated that the activin-beta(C) subunit provides another mechanism regulating activin bioactivity. To test our hypothesis, we examined the biological effects of activin C and produced mice that overexpress activin-beta(C). Activin C reduced activin A bioactivity in vitro; in LNCaP cells, activin C abrogated both activin A-induced Smad signaling and growth inhibition, and in LbetaT2 cells, activin C antagonized activin A-mediated activity of an follicle-stimulating hormone-beta promoter. Transgenic mice that overexpress activin-betaC exhibited disease in testis, liver, and prostate. Male infertility was caused by both reduced sperm production and impaired sperm motility. The livers of the transgenic mice were enlarged because of an imbalance between hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis. Transgenic prostates showed evidence of hypertrophy and epithelial cell hyperplasia. Additionally, there was decreased evidence of nuclear Smad-2 localization in the testis, liver, and prostate, indicating that overexpression of activin-beta(C) antagonized Smad signaling in vivo. Underlying the significance of these findings, human testis, liver, and prostate cancers expressed increased activin-betaC immunoreactivity. This study provides evidence that activin-beta(C) is an antagonist of activin A and supplies an impetus to examine its role in development and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elspeth Gold
- Centre for Urological Research, Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Barakat B, O'Connor AE, Gold E, de Kretser DM, Loveland KL. Inhibin, activin, follistatin and FSH serum levels and testicular production are highly modulated during the first spermatogenic wave in mice. Reproduction 2008; 136:345-59. [DOI: 10.1530/rep-08-0140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Testicular development is governed by the combined influence of hormones and proteins, including FSH, inhibins, activins and follistatin (FST). This study documents the expression of these proteins and their corresponding mRNAs, in testes and serum from mice aged 0 through 91 dayspost partum(dpp), using real-time PCR,in situhybridisation, immunohistochemistry, ELISA and RIA. Serum immunoactive total inhibin and FSH levels were negatively correlated during development, with FSH levels rising and inhibin levels falling. Activin A production changed significantly during development, with subunit mRNA and protein levels declining rapidly after 4 dpp, while simultaneously levels of the activin antagonists, FST and inhibin/activin βC, increased. Inhibin/activin βAand βBsubunit mRNAs were detected in Sertoli, germ and Leydig cells throughout testis development, with the βAsubunit also detected in peritubular myoid cells. The α, βA, βBand βCsubunit proteins were detected in Sertoli and Leydig cells of developing and adult mouse testes. While βAand βBsubunit proteins were observed in spermatogonia and spermatocytes in immature testes, βCwas localised to leptotene and zygotene spermatocytes in immature and adult testes. Nuclear βAsubunit protein was observed in primary spermatocytes and nuclear βCsubunit in gonocytes and round spermatids. The changing spatial and temporal distributions of inhibins and activins indicate that their modulated synthesis and action are important during onset of murine spermatogenesis. This study provides a foundation for evaluation of these proteins in mice with disturbed testicular development, enabling their role in normal and perturbed spermatogenesis to be more fully understood.
Collapse
|
22
|
Yang YG, Liu XJ, Zhang JH. Advances in research of activins C and E. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2008; 16:1559-1567. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v16.i14.1559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Activins, which consist of two disulfide-linked β subunits, are members of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) superfamily of growth factors. Four mammalian activin β subunits, termed as βA, βB, βC, and βE respectively, have been identified. Activin A, the homodimer of two βA subunits, is a pleiotropic cytokine and is expressed in many tissues and cells. There has been compelling evidence that activin A is involved in the regulation of reproductive biology, embryonic development, erythroid differentiation, systemic inflammation, induced apoptosis, tissue repair, fibrogenesis and so on, through classic activin signaling pathway. βC and βE subunits, which are almost exclusively expressed in the liver, are still quite incompletely understood. In this review, we summarize and discuss the function of βC and βE subunits in liver. Further research should be made to understand the biological role of the βC and βE subunits.
Collapse
|
23
|
Deli A, Kreidl E, Santifaller S, Trotter B, Seir K, Berger W, Schulte-Hermann R, Rodgarkia-Dara C, Grusch M. Activins and activin antagonists in hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:1699-709. [PMID: 18350601 PMCID: PMC2695910 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.1699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In many parts of the world hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the leading causes of cancer-related mortality but the underlying molecular pathology is still insufficiently understood. There is increasing evidence that activins, which are members of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily of growth and differentiation factors, could play important roles in liver carcinogenesis. Activins are disulphide-linked homo- or heterodimers formed from four different β subunits termed βA, βB, βC, and βE, respectively. Activin A, the dimer of two βA subunits, is critically involved in the regulation of cell growth, apoptosis, and tissue architecture in the liver, while the hepatic function of other activins is largely unexplored so far. Negative regulators of activin signals include antagonists in the extracellular space like the binding proteins follistatin and FLRG, and at the cell membrane antagonistic co-receptors like Cripto or BAMBI. Additionally, in the intracellular space inhibitory Smads can modulate and control activin activity. Accumulating data suggest that deregulation of activin signals contributes to pathologic conditions such as chronic inflammation, fibrosis and development of cancer. The current article reviews the alterations in components of the activin signaling pathway that have been observed in HCC and discusses their potential significance for liver tumorigenesis.
Collapse
|
24
|
Rodgarkia-Dara C, Vejda S, Erlach N, Losert A, Bursch W, Berger W, Schulte-Hermann R, Grusch M. The activin axis in liver biology and disease. Mutat Res 2006; 613:123-37. [PMID: 16997617 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2006.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2006] [Revised: 07/27/2006] [Accepted: 07/27/2006] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Activins are a closely related subgroup within the TGFbeta superfamily of growth and differentiation factors. They consist of two disulfide-linked beta subunits. Four mammalian activin beta subunits termed beta(A), beta(B), beta(C), and beta(E), respectively, have been identified. Activin A, the homodimer of two beta(A) subunits, has important regulatory functions in reproductive biology, embryonic development, inflammation, and tissue repair. Several intra- and extracellular antagonists, including the activin-binding proteins follistatin and follistatin-related protein, serve to fine-tune activin A activity. In the liver there is compelling evidence that activin A is involved in the regulation of cell number by inhibition of hepatocyte replication and induction of apoptosis. In addition, activin A stimulates extracellular matrix production in hepatic stellate cells and tubulogenesis of sinusoidal endothelial cells, and thus contributes to restoration of tissue architecture during liver regeneration. Accumulating evidence from animal models and from patient data suggests that deregulation of activin A signaling contributes to pathologic conditions such as hepatic inflammation and fibrosis, acute liver failure, and development of liver cancer. Increased production of activin A was suggested to be a contributing factor to impaired hepatocyte regeneration in acute liver failure and to overproduction of extracellular matrix in liver fibrosis. Recent evidence suggests that escape of (pre)neoplastic hepatocytes from growth control by activin A through overexpression of follistatin and reduced activin production contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis. The role of the activin subunits beta(C) and beta(E), which are both highly expressed in hepatocytes, is still quite incompletely understood. Down-regulation in liver tumors and a growth inhibitory function similar to that of beta(A) has been shown for beta(E). Contradictory results with regard to cell proliferation have been reported for beta(C). The profound involvement of the activin axis in liver biology and in the pathogenesis of severe hepatic diseases suggests activin as potential target for therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Rodgarkia-Dara
- Department of Medicine I, Division: Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Ushiro Y, Hashimoto O, Seki M, Hachiya A, Shoji H, Hasegawa Y. Analysis of the function of activin betaC subunit using recombinant protein. J Reprod Dev 2006; 52:487-95. [PMID: 16627954 DOI: 10.1262/jrd.17110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Activins, TGF-beta superfamily members, have multiple functions in a variety of cells and tissues. Additional activin beta subunit genes, betaC and betaE, have been identified in humans and rodents. To explore the role of activin betaC subunit, we generated recombinant human activin C using Chinese hamster ovary cells. Recombinant activin C from the conditioned medium was purified by consecutive hydrophobic, size-exclusion, and high performance liquid chromatography. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis of the purified protein revealed that activin C formed disulfide bridges. However, activin C had no effect on the proliferation of cultured liver cells. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in erythroid differentiation and follicle stimulating hormone secretion in vitro. It was also shown that immunoreactive bands indicated the hetrodimer of activin betaC, and inhibin alpha subunits were detected in the conditioned medium from the activin C-producing cells, which were stably transfected with inhibin alpha subunit cDNA. This suggests that activin betaC subunit may have been present and that it may exert its effect as inhibin C.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Ushiro
- Laboratory of Experimental Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Gold EJ, Monaghan MA, Fleming JS. Rat activin-betaE mRNA expression during development and in acute and chronic liver injury. J Mol Genet Med 2006; 2:93-100. [PMID: 19565003 PMCID: PMC2702058 DOI: 10.4172/1747-0862.1000019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2006] [Revised: 03/06/2006] [Accepted: 03/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Activin-βE mRNA expression was investigated in male and female rats using gel-based and quantitative RT-PCR, in fetal and post-natal liver during development and in a variety of tissues from 200 gm adult animals. Activin-βE expression was also assessed in rat liver after partial hepatectomy, and after repeated toxic insult. Male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to partial hepatectomy or sham operations. Samples were collected from the caudate liver lobe during regeneration, from 12 to 240 hr after surgery. Three groups of 5 male rats were treated with CCl4 for 0 (control), 5 or 10 weeks, to induce liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. Activin-βE mRNA was predominantly expressed in liver, with much lower amounts of mRNA observed in pituitary, adrenal gland and spleen, in both males and females. Low activin-βE expression was observed in liver at fetal day 16, with higher levels seen between post-natal days 3 and 35 and a further increase noted by day 47, in both males and females. Liver activin-βE mRNA concentrations did not change from control values 12-72 hr after PHx, but significantly increased over six fold, 168 hr post-hepatectomy, when liver mass was restored. Activin-βE mRNA was up-regulated after 5 weeks of CCl4 treatment, but not after 10 weeks. The changes in activin-βE mRNA concentrations after liver insult did not always parallel those reported for the activin-βC subunit, suggesting activin-βE may have an independent role in liver under certain conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elspeth J Gold
- Centre for Urological Research, Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Butler CM, Gold EJ, Risbridger GP. Should activin betaC be more than a fading snapshot in the activin/TGFbeta family album? Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2005; 16:377-85. [PMID: 15925536 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2005.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2005] [Revised: 04/13/2005] [Accepted: 04/13/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The activin growth factors consist of dimeric proteins made up of activin beta subunits and have been shown to be essential regulators of diverse systems in physiology. Four subunits are known to be expressed in mammalian cells: betaA, betaB, betaC, and betaE. Surprisingly, deletion of activin betaC and betaE subunits in vivo does not affect embryonic development or adult physiology which has led to the activin betaC and betaE subunits being regarded as non-essential and unimportant. The steady accumulation of circumstantial evidence to the contrary has led this lab to reassess the role of the activin betaC subunit. Activin betaC protein is expressed more widely than indicated by mRNA localisation. Experiments overexpressing activin betaC subunit or adding exogenous Activin C in vitro are contradictory but suggest roles for activin betaC in regulating Activin A action in apoptosis and homeostasis. Sequestration of betaA subunits by dimerisation with betaC subunits to form Activin AC represents an intracellular regulator of Activin A bioactivity. Activins play a pivotal role in normal physiology and carcinogenesis, so any molecule, such as the activin betaC subunit, that can affect activin action is potentially significant. Advancing our understanding of the physiological role of the activin betaC subunit requires new tools and reagents. Direct detection of the Activin AC dimer will be essential and will necessitate the purification of heteromeric Activin AC protein. In addition, there is a need for the development of an in vivo model of activin betaC subunit overexpression. With development of these tools, research into activin action in development and physiology can expand to include the less well understood members of the activin family such as activin betaC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Butler
- Centre for Urological Research, Monash Institute for Medical Research, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Vic., Australia.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|