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Echeverry-Alzate V, Bühler KM, Calleja-Conde J, Huertas E, Maldonado R, Rodríguez de Fonseca F, Santiago C, Gómez-Gallego F, Santos A, Giné E, López-Moreno JA. Adult-onset hypothyroidism increases ethanol consumption. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1187-1197. [PMID: 30470859 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5123-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Only in Europe it can be estimated that more than 20 million of people would be affected by hypothyroidism in some moment of their life. Given that ethanol consumption is so frequent, it would be reasonable to ask what the consequences of ethanol consumption in those individuals affected by hypothyroidism are. OBJECTIVES To study the interaction between hypothyroidism and ethanol consumption. METHODS We study ethanol consumption in a rat model of methyl-mercaptoimidazole-induced-adult-onset hypothyroidism and thyroid T4/T3 hormone supplementation. Also, we studied the effects of ethanol on motor activity, memory, and anxiety. RESULTS We found that hypothyroidism increased the voluntary ethanol consumption and that this was enhanced by thyroid hormone supplementation. Hypothyroidism was associated with motor hyperactivity which was prevented either by T4/T3 supplementation or ethanol. The relationship between hypothyroidism, ethanol, and anxiety was more complex. In an anxiogenic context, hypothyroidism and T4/T3 supplementation would increase immobility, an anxiety-like behavior, while in a less anxiogenic context would decrease rearing, a behavior related to anxiety. Regarding memory, acute ethanol administration did not alter episodic-like memory in hypothyroid rats. Gene expression of enzymes involved in the metabolism of ethanol, i.e., Adh1 and Aldh2, were altered by hypothyroidism and T4/T3 supplementation. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that hypothyroid patients would need personalized attention in terms of ethanol consumption. In addition, they point that it would be useful to embrace the thyroid axis in the study of ethanol addiction, including as a possible therapeutic target for the treatment of alcoholism and its comorbid disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Echeverry-Alzate
- Department of Psychobiology & Behavioral Sciences Methods, School of Psychology, Campus de Somosaguas, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | - K M Bühler
- Department of Psychobiology & Behavioral Sciences Methods, School of Psychology, Campus de Somosaguas, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Calleja-Conde
- Department of Psychobiology & Behavioral Sciences Methods, School of Psychology, Campus de Somosaguas, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | - E Huertas
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Cognitive Processes & Speech Therapy, School of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | - R Maldonado
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F Rodríguez de Fonseca
- Fundación IMABIS, Laboratorio de Medicina Regenerativa, Hospital Regional Universitario Carlos Haya, 29010, Málaga, Spain
| | - C Santiago
- Department of Basic Biomedical Science, Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670, Madrid, Spain
| | - F Gómez-Gallego
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR), La Rioja, Spain
| | - A Santos
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - E Giné
- Department of Cellular Biology, School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - J A López-Moreno
- Department of Psychobiology & Behavioral Sciences Methods, School of Psychology, Campus de Somosaguas, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223, Madrid, Spain.
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Low Phytanic Acid-Concentrated DHA Prevents Cognitive Deficit and Regulates Alzheimer Disease Mediators in an ApoE -/- Mice Experimental Model. Nutrients 2018; 11:nu11010011. [PMID: 30577526 PMCID: PMC6356727 DOI: 10.3390/nu11010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the main cause of dementia and cognitive impairment. It has been associated with a significant diminution of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels in the brain. Clinical trials with DHA as a treatment in neurological diseases have shown inconsistent results. Previously, we reported that the presence of phytanic acid (PhA) in standard DHA compositions could be blunting DHA’s beneficial effects. Therefore, we aimed to analyze the effects of a low PhA-concentrated DHA and a standard PhA-concentrated DHA in Apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE−/−) mice. Behavioral tests and protein expression of pro-inflammatory, pro-oxidant, antioxidant factors, and AD-related mediators were evaluated. Low PhA-concentrated DHA decreased Aβ, ß-amyloid precursor protein (APP), p-tau, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CAMKII), caspase 3, and catalase, and increased brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) when compared to standard PhA-concentrated DHA. Low PhA-concentrated DHA decreased interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) protein expression in ApoE−/− mice when compared to standard PhA-concentrated DHA. No significant differences were found in p22phox, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD-1), and tau protein expression. The positive actions of a low PhA-concentrated DHA were functionally reflected by improving the cognitive deficit in the AD experimental model. Therefore, reduction of PhA content in DHA compositions could highlight a novel pathway for the neurodegeneration processes related to AD.
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Morales-Garcia JA, Echeverry-Alzate V, Alonso-Gil S, Sanz-SanCristobal M, Lopez-Moreno JA, Gil C, Martinez A, Santos A, Perez-Castillo A. Phosphodiesterase7 Inhibition Activates Adult Neurogenesis in Hippocampus and Subventricular Zone In Vitro and In Vivo. Stem Cells 2016; 35:458-472. [PMID: 27538853 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The phosphodiesterase 7 (PDE7) enzyme is one of the enzymes responsible for controlling intracellular levels of cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate in the immune and central nervous system. We have previously shown that inhibitors of this enzyme are potent neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory agents. In addition, we also demonstrated that PDE7 inhibition induces endogenous neuroregenerative processes toward a dopaminergic phenotype. Here, we show that PDE7 inhibition controls stem cell expansion in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus (SGZ) and the subventricular zone (SVZ) in the adult rat brain. Neurospheres cultures obtained from SGZ and SVZ of adult rats treated with PDE7 inhibitors presented an increased proliferation and neuronal differentiation compared to control cultures. PDE7 inhibitors treatment of neurospheres cultures also resulted in an increase of the levels of phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein, suggesting that their effects were indeed mediated through the activation of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway. In addition, adult rats orally treated with S14, a specific inhibitor of PDE7, presented elevated numbers of proliferating progenitor cells, and migrating precursors in the SGZ and the SVZ. Moreover, long-term treatment with this PDE7 inhibitor shows a significant increase in newly generated neurons in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus. Also a better performance in memory tests was observed in S14 treated rats, suggesting a functional relevance for the S14-induced increase in SGZ neurogenesis. Taken together, our results indicate for the first time that inhibition of PDE7 directly regulates proliferation, migration and differentiation of neural stem cells, improving spatial learning and memory tasks. Stem Cells 2017;35:458-472.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Morales-Garcia
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Victor Echeverry-Alzate
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sandra Alonso-Gil
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marina Sanz-SanCristobal
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose A Lopez-Moreno
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Gil
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Martinez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid, Spain
| | - Angel Santos
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Perez-Castillo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
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Shafiee SM, Vafaei AA, Rashidy-Pour A. Effects of maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy on learning, memory and hippocampal BDNF in rat pups: Beneficial effects of exercise. Neuroscience 2016; 329:151-61. [PMID: 27181637 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Hypothyroidism during early development leads to numerous morphological, biochemical and functional changes in developing brain. In this study, we investigated the effects of voluntary and treadmill exercise on learning, memory and hippocampal BDNF levels in both hypothyroid male and female rat pups. To induce hypothyroidism in the mothers, 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) was added to their drinking water (100mg/L) from their embryonic day 6 to their postnatal day (PND) 21. For 14days, from PNDs 31 to 44, the rat pups were trained with one of the two different exercise protocols, namely the mild treadmill exercise and the voluntary wheel exercise. On PNDs 45-52, a water maze was used for testing their learning and memory ability. The rats were sacrificed one day later and their BDNF levels were then measured in the hippocampus. The findings of the present study indicate that hypothyroidism during the fetal period and the early postnatal period is associated with the impairment of spatial learning and memory and reduced hippocampal BDNF levels in both male and female rat offspring. Both the short-term treadmill exercise and the voluntary wheel exercise performed during the postnatal period reverse the behavioral and neurochemical deficits induced by developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency in both male and female rat offspring. The findings of this study thus demonstrate a marked reversibility of both behavioral and neurochemical disorders induced by developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency through the performance of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Morteza Shafiee
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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Khodadad A, Adelson PD, Lifshitz J, Thomas TC. The time course of activity-regulated cytoskeletal (ARC) gene and protein expression in the whisker-barrel circuit using two paradigms of whisker stimulation. Behav Brain Res 2015; 284:249-56. [PMID: 25682931 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Revised: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Immediate early genes have previously demonstrated a rapid increase in gene expression after various behavioral paradigms. The main focus of this article is to identify a molecular marker of circuit activation after manual whisker stimulation or exploration of a novel environment. To this end, we investigated the dynamics of ARC transcription in adult male rats during whisker somatosensation throughout the whisker barrel circuit. At various time points, tissue was biopsied from the ventral posterior medial nucleus (VPM) of the thalamus, primary somatosensory barrel field (S1BF) cortex and hippocampus for quantification using real-time PCR and western blot. Our results show that there were no significant differences in ARC gene or protein expression in the VPM after both types of stimulation. However, manual whisker stimulation resulted in increased ARC gene expression at 15, 30, 60 and 300 min in the S1BF, and 15 min in the hippocampus (p<0.05). Also, exploration of a novel environment resulted in increased ARC mRNA expression at 15 and 30 min in the S1BF and at 15 min in the hippocampus (p<0.05). The type of stimulation (manual versus exploration of a novel environment) influenced the magnitude of ARC gene expression in the S1BF (p<0.05). These data are the first to demonstrate that ARC is a specific, quantifiable and input dependent molecular marker of circuit activation which can serve to quantify the impact of brain injury and subsequent rehabilitation on whisker sensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Khodadad
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital- Phoenix, AZ; Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, AZ; Department of Neuroscience, University of Strasbourg, France.
| | - P David Adelson
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital- Phoenix, AZ; Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, AZ; Neuroscience Program, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ; School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.
| | - Jonathan Lifshitz
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital- Phoenix, AZ; Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, AZ; Phoenix VA Healthcare System- Phoenix, AZ; Neuroscience Program, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.
| | - Theresa Currier Thomas
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital- Phoenix, AZ; Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, AZ; Phoenix VA Healthcare System- Phoenix, AZ.
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Abstract
Some of the earliest reports of the effects of cannabis consumption on humans were related to endocrine system changes. In this review, the effects of cannabinoids and the role of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the regulation of the following endocrine systems are discussed: the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, prolactin and oxytocin, thyroid hormone and growth hormone, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Preclinical and human study results are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia J Hillard
- Neuroscience Research Center and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI, 53226, USA.
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7
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The microinjection of a cannabinoid agonist into the accumbens shell induces anxiogenesis in the elevated plus-maze. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 124:160-6. [PMID: 24887448 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of a cannabinoid agonist injected into the shell region of the nucleus accumbens (nAcb shell) on anxiety-related behaviors. The animals (male Wistar rats) were unilaterally microinjected with either ACEA (arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide a CB1 receptor agonist) at doses of 0.005, 0.05 or 0.5 pmol, or vehicle (ethanol 0.04% in saline 0.9%) and submitted to the elevated plus-maze (EPM), a pre-clinical test of anxiety. The data showed that rats microinjected with ACEA (0.05 pmol/0.2 μl) into the nAcb shell exhibited decreased % open arm time and open arm entries in comparison with the control group, which is compatible with an anxiogenic-like effect. To rule out the hypothesis that spread of the drug into the ventricle was responsible for the observed anxiogenic effect, 0.05 pmol ACEA was injected into the lateral ventricle and shown not to alter the responses representative of fear/anxiety and locomotion. The locomotor activity was not changed at the dose of 0.05 pmol ACEA microinjected into the nAcb shell. The present data suggest that activation of cannabinoid receptors in the nAcb shell may modulate fear/anxiety in the EPM.
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8
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Imbernon M, Whyte L, Diaz-Arteaga A, Russell WR, Moreno NR, Vazquez MJ, Gonzalez CR, Díaz-Ruiz A, Lopez M, Malagón MM, Ross RA, Dieguez C, Nogueiras R. Regulation of GPR55 in rat white adipose tissue and serum LPI by nutritional status, gestation, gender and pituitary factors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 383:159-69. [PMID: 24378736 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The G protein-coupled receptor GPR55 has been proposed as a new cannabinoid receptor associated with obesity in humans. We have investigated the regulation of GPR55 in rat white adipose tissue (WAT) in different physiological and pathophysiological settings involved in energy balance. We compared GPR55 expression with Cannabinoid Receptor type 1 (CB1), which mediates the metabolic actions of endocannabinoids, by real time PCR and western blotting. Circulating levels of lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI), the endogenous ligand of GPR55, were measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Both WAT CB1 and GPR55 levels were increased after fasting and recovered after leptin treatment. Their expression was decreased during gestation and increased throughout lifespan. Orchidectomy diminished WAT CB1 and GPR55 expression whereas ovariectomized rats showed increased GPR55 but decreased CB1 levels. Alterations in pituitary functions also modified WAT CB1 and GPR55 levels. Serum LPI levels were inversely regulated by fasting and gonadectomy in comparison to WAT GPR55. Our findings indicate that GPR55 and LPI are regulated by different physiological and pathophysiological settings known to be associated with marked alterations in energy status.
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MESH Headings
- Adipose Tissue, White/drug effects
- Adipose Tissue, White/metabolism
- Age Factors
- Animals
- Energy Metabolism
- Fasting
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Gestational Age
- Leptin/pharmacology
- Lysophospholipids/blood
- Male
- Nutritional Status/genetics
- Orchiectomy
- Ovariectomy
- Pituitary Gland/drug effects
- Pituitary Gland/metabolism
- Rats
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Receptors, Cannabinoid/genetics
- Receptors, Cannabinoid/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Sex Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Imbernon
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain
| | - Lauren Whyte
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Adenis Diaz-Arteaga
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain
| | - Wendy R Russell
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Natalia R Moreno
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain; Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Instituto Maimónides de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IMIBIC)/Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia/University of Cordoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - María J Vazquez
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain
| | - Carmen R Gonzalez
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain
| | - Alberto Díaz-Ruiz
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain; Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Instituto Maimónides de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IMIBIC)/Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia/University of Cordoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Miguel Lopez
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain
| | - Maria M Malagón
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain; Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Instituto Maimónides de Investigaciones Biomédicas (IMIBIC)/Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia/University of Cordoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Ruth A Ross
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Carlos Dieguez
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain.
| | - Ruben Nogueiras
- Department of Physiology, CIMUS, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Santiago de Compostela 15706, Spain.
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