Marinating as a technology to shift sensory thresholds in ready-to-eat entire male pork meat

Marinade injection of pork as a possible technological strategy to reduce boar taint: Response and attitude of the consumer

Sensory evaluation by consumers allows validation of a solution for the food industry to overcome boar taint and market entire male pork with high levels of boar taint considered "unfit for human consumption". One possible technological strategy for improvement is the injection marination of entire male pork to help minimise the impact of boar taint and improve its marketability. The responses of 120 regular pork consumers, to entire males with high levels of boar taint and castrated pork, both injection-marinated, were evaluated. The results showed a similar response between entire and castrated male pork regardless of sex, and the detection of unpleasant odours and flavours (as farm/animal), thus offering a new alternative to the pork sector to mask the boar taint and revalue this pork. However, it was observed that consumer information on castration and animal welfare of entire male pork is scarce, and it is important to increase their knowledge so that they can place a value on this technological strategy with entire male pork and thus increase their purchase intention.

The Effect of the Boar Taint Masking Strategy (Adding Dried Origanum vulgare or Allium sativum) on Sensory Characteristics

With increasing efforts to ban surgical castration, it is important to find ways to mask the level of boar taint in meat. The aim of this study was to test the possibility of masking boar taint or skatole levels by adding dried Origanum vulgare or Allium sativum and to evaluate consumer sensory preferences towards the skatole concentration in different carcass parts (longissimus lumborum; semimembranosus; neck chop and subcutaneous fat) and the masking strategy (addition of Allium sativum or Origanum vulgare). In the first experiment, the effect of the masking strategy was evaluated at three different skatole concentrations (0.069, 0.269 and 0.463 µg/g). The results showed that the samples with low and medium skatole levels were significantly different between the control group and the groups treated with Origanum vulgare or Allium sativum. In both cases, the addition of Allium sativum and Origanum vulgare had a positive effect on the parameters of abnormal odour and pleasantness of odour (p < 0.05). According to the results of the second experiment, meat samples from leaner parts, such as the neck chop semimembranosus and longissimus lumborum, not treated with Allium sativum and Origanum vulgare for masking, were significantly (p < 0.05) worse in terms of the occurrence of boar taint or abnormal odour than the masked samples. No significant differences were found between the two masking methods.

The effects of different immunocastration protocols on meat quality traits and boar taint compounds in male Bísaro pigs

Immunocastration can be an alternative to surgical castration in Bísaro pigs when there is a need to keep animals on the farm until at least 8 months old. As an autochthonous breed, some particularities must be addressed when doing immunocastration, for which 3 different protocols were tested and two control groups were made with surgically castrated males (SC) and boars (Bo). Two protocols were made in prepubertal pigs, with two (E2) and three inoculations (L3) in the first cycle, and another in adults (A2) with only two inoculations. Physicochemical parameters and boar taint compounds quantification and sensory analysis of the meat from the studied pigs were assessed. Immunocastration provided intermediate values between surgically castrated pigs and entire males, with low levels of boar taint compounds. The L3 group provided closer results to SC, which was also corroborated by the sensory analysis. Although the other two protocols had no significant differences with Bo, there was a positive tendency towards them. As is, the L3 protocol was promising as a good alternative to surgical castration, maintaining the characteristic attributes of the Bísaro pig meat.

Seasonal Variations on Testicular Morphology, Boar Taint, and Meat Quality Traits in Traditional Outdoor Pig Farming

Traditional outdoor pig farming is renowned for its emphasis on animal welfare and the production of highly valued, quality meat. While seasonality is known to impact certain animals, particularly those raised outdoors, there is a lack of research on Bísaro boars, a native Portuguese breed. This research study was conducted on a total of 20 male entire Bísaro pigs, reared in outdoor pens from 4 to 13 months old, and subsequently slaughtered. The animals were divided into two groups: one slaughtered in winter (Wi, n = 9), and the other in summer (Su, n = 11). The objective was to evaluate testicular morphometry, boar taint compounds, and meat quality traits, including sensory analysis and fatty acid profile. Testicles from the Su group exhibited reduced volume, indicating diminished functionality during that season. While no significant differences were observed in the boar taint compound analysis, panelists could discern a more intense aroma and flavor of boar taint in the Su meat. Other meat quality traits showed no significant variations, but the fatty acid profile displayed higher values in the Wi group. This study reveals that Bísaro boars experience reproductive seasonality, leading to variations in boar taint compounds across the seasons. This information is crucial for farm planning.

Effect of Immunocastration on Culled Sows-A Preliminary Study on Reproductive Tract, Carcass Traits, and Meat Quality

The Bísaro pig is a Portuguese autochthonous breed greatly appreciated for its meat quality and is mainly reared outdoors. Immunocastration could be a solution to avoid undesirable pregnancies and boar taint in cull sows. The present study tested three immunocastration protocols (with Improvac®) according to their reproductive cycle. The first inoculation was performed two weeks after farrowing (IM1, n = 5), at the beginning of estrus (IM2, n = 5), and one week after the end of estrus (IM3, n = 5), followed by a second administration four weeks apart. A control group (C, n = 5) was also included in the same housing conditions. The sample collection included the reproductive tract for morphometric evaluation, neck fat for the quantification of boar taint compounds, and a portion of the Longissimus thoracis et lumborum for meat quality trait assessment. The reproductive tracts from intact sows (C) were significantly heavier compared to the immunocastrated groups (p < 0.05) (1.403 kg C to 0.508 kg IM1, 0.590 kg IM2, and 0.599 kg IM3), suggesting the regression of the reproductive tract to nonstimulated conditions due to immunization against GnRH. The IM1 group exhibited significantly smaller reproductive tract measurements compared to group C for most of the evaluated segments (p < 0.05). No marked differences were observed in the meat quality traits. Therefore, immunocastration can be used in culling sows to avoid ovarian activity, and it is not detrimental to pork quality traits.

Marinades Based on Natural Ingredients as a Way to Improve the Quality and Shelf Life of Meat: A Review

Marinating is a traditional method of improving the quality of meat, but it has been modified in response to consumer demand for "clean label" products. The aim of this review is to present scientific literature on the natural ingredients contained in marinades, the parameters of the marinating process, and certain mechanisms that bring about changes in meat. A review was carried out of publications from 2000 to 2023 available in Web of Science on the natural ingredients of meat marinades: fruit and vegetables, seasonings, fermented dairy products, wine, and beer. The review showed that natural marinades improve the sensory quality of meat and its culinary properties; they also extend its shelf life. They affect the safety of meat products by limiting the oxidation of fats and proteins. They also reduce biogenic amines and the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This is possible due to the presence of biologically active substances and competitive microflora from dairy products. However, some marinades, especially those that are acidic, cause a slightly acidic flavour and an unfavourable colour change. Natural compounds in the ingredients of marinades are accepted by consumers. There are no results in the literature on the impact of natural marinades on the nutritional value and health-promoting potential of meat products, so it can be assumed that this is a future direction for scientific research.

Effect of Marinating in Dairy-Fermented Products and Sous-Vide Cooking on the Protein Profile and Sensory Quality of Pork Longissimus Muscle

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of marinating (3 or 6 days) in kefir (KE), yogurt (YO) and buttermilk (BM) and sous-vide cooking (SV) at 60 or 80 °C on changes in the protein profile of pork in relation to its sensory quality. In the marinated raw meat, an increased share of some fractions of myofibrillar and cytoskeletal proteins and calpains were found. The greatest degradation of proteins, regardless of time, was caused by marinating in YO and KE and cooking SV at 80 °C. The lowest processing losses were in samples marinated in KE and YO and cooked SV at 60 °C, with marinating time having no significant effect. The odor, flavor, tenderness and juiciness of meat marinated in BM was better than in KE and YO. Meat marinated and cooked SV at 60 °C was rated better by the panelists. Changes in proteins significantly affect the formation of meat texture, tenderness and juiciness, which confirms the correlations. This is also reflected in the sensory evaluation. During the process of marinating and cooking meat, protein degradation should be taken into account, which can be a good tool for shaping the sensory quality of cooked pork.

Spanish Fuet Sausages Fat-Reduced to Diminish Boar Taint: Sensory and Technological Quality

Reduced-fat cured sausages were evaluated as a strategy to reduce boar taint in entire male pork products with high levels of androstenone and skatole, both lipophilic. Three fuet-type sausages (two replicates each) were developed: the control (C) (60% lean, 33.69% fat), and two reduced-fat (60% lean 21.19% fat) products; R1, 6% inulin, 0.5% β-glucan and R2, 3% inulin, 0.5% grape skin and 1% β-glucan. All of them were prepared from entire male pork with an androstenone concentration of 6.887 µg/g and 0.520 µg/g of skatole. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.001) in the moisture content were described between the fuet R1 and the C and R2, which obtained the highest percentage. Regarding the CIELAB, the C samples had the highest L* value, while the R2 sausages were the darkest. Boar taint was reduced in both R1 and R2, with a greater reduction in R2 (p ≤ 0.000). The addition of inulin and β-glucan in fuet R1 provided a similar technological and sensory profile to C. However, both strategies provided a reduction of sexual odour, which was higher when grape skins were included. In addition, R2 gave a characteristic sausage with more odour and flavour, dark colour and overall rating than C and R1.

Consumer perception of entire male pork coated with spiced edible films as a new product to mask boar taint

Pork production has undergone a shift towards the rearing of entire male pigs, however, its meat might carry with the presence of boar taint and it would be considered "unfit for human consumption". To offer a new alternative to the pork sector tailored to the needs of consumers, a viable option would be the use of edible spiced gelatin films to help minimize boar taint and improve its marketability. The responses of 120 regular meat consumers to entire pork with high levels of boar taint and castrated pork free of boar taint, both coated with spiced gelatin films were evaluated. They showed a similar response between entire and castrated male pork coated with spiced films, regardless of whether consumers usually detected unpleasant odours (as farm/animal) when consuming pork or not. Therefore, the new spiced films offer a new range of products to consumers as they contribute to the improvement of the sensory quality of entire male pork, especially among consumers who tend to buy new products.

Novel gels and films to mask boar taint in entire male pork

Boar taint masking strategies were developed using hydrocolloids and spices to produce edible gels and films. Carrageenan (G1) and agar-agar (G2) were used for the gels and gelatin (F1) and alginate+maltodextrin (F2) for the films. The strategies were applied to both castrated (control) and entire male pork with high levels of androstenone and skatole. The samples were evaluated sensorially by a trained tasting panel through quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA). Lower hardness and chewiness of entire male pork, with high levels of boar taint compounds object of study, were found with the carrageenan gel, due to the better carrageenan gel adherence to the loin. The films showed that the gelatin strategy tended to have a certain "sweet" taste, and a higher overall masking than the alginate+maltodextrin film. In conclusion, a trained tasting panel found that gelatin film masked boar taint the most, followed by the alginate+maltodextrin film and the carrageenan-based gel.

Sensory Quality Evaluation of Superheated Steam-Treated Chicken Leg and Breast Meats with a Combination of Marination and Hot Smoking

As the sensory qualities of meat processed using methods such as superheated steam, marination, and hot smoking have not been examined, this study analyzed the sensory quality of chicken meats (leg, breast) and its chemical correlation by determining optimal processing conditions (superheated steam treatment, marination, and hot smoking). Chicken meats were defrosted using room temperature, running tap water, or high-frequency defroster. Marinated meats with herbal extract solution were treated with superheated steam and then hot smoked with wood sawdust; sensory evaluations were performed at each processing step. The products were analyzed for fatty acids and nutrients, along with storage tests under different conditions. High-frequency defrosting showed the lowest drip loss and thawing time compared to other methods. Bay leaves and oak wood were selected as the best sub-materials for higher sensory scores. Optimal superheated steam conditions showed higher overall acceptance (8.86, 8.71) and were set as follows; leg meat (225 °C; 12 min 20 s), breast meat (223 °C; 8 min 40 s). The final meat products possessed good nutritional composition and no severe sensory spoilages were detected during storage despite microbial and chemical degradations. Thus, regular sensory evaluations at each processing step and storage condition were effective for developing superior chicken meat products.

Bactericidal effect of marinades on meats against different pathogens: a review

Marinades are seasoned liquids used to improve tenderness, palatability, flavor, color and/or texture of different meats. In addition to contribute to the sensory characteristics, marinates can inactivate food microorganism as well. The purpose of this study was to assess the current state of knowledge regarding the effect of marinades on meats and important food pathogens. Using a systematic review of literature, different types of marinades were evaluated, identifying its ingredients, concentrations, temperature, marinating time and their effect on Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter and Vibrio. Findings demonstrated that the use of marinades on meats not only prevents the growth of pathogens but also inactivates food pathogens. Most marinades were able to reduce < 3 log CFU/g of pathogens, and Vibrio populations demonstrated the highest reductions (> 4 log CFU/g). The pH was the most pronounced parameter influencing the pathogens inactivation, however, ingredients and storage temperature also affected pathogen reduction in marinades.

The Use of Pork from Entire Male and Immunocastrated Pigs for Meat Products-An Overview with Recommendations

Due to the strong public initiative in Europe and increased regulator focus to mitigate pain, surgical castration of pigs is being gradually abandoned, while the importance of other sex categories like entire males (EM) and immunocastrates (IC) increases. Although beneficial for animal welfare and economics, their use also brings forward several quality problems. Besides the occurrence of boar taint in EM, these include excessive carcass leanness, softer fat, meat color and pH deviations, inferior water holding capacity and increased meat toughness. In this paper, the raw material differences between the male sex categories and their influence on product quality are reviewed, and possible solutions are presented. Using EM for dried or thermally processed products may result in lower processing yields and inferior sensory quality, which may partially be prevented by applying specific processing adaptations. Immunocastration is a viable solution, especially when prolonging the vaccination to slaughter interval. Low to medium levels of boar taint can be effectively managed in most of the meat products, applying procedures like cooking, microbial inoculation or masking (by spices and especially smoking), while highly tainted material can be valorized only by combining various methods and/or with dilution of the tainted meat.

Use of Essential Oils to Increase the Safety and the Quality of Marinated Pork Loin

This study aimed at evaluating the effects of the addition of an oil/beer/lemon marinade solution with or without the inclusion of oregano, rosemary and juniper essential oils on the quality, the technological properties as well as the shelf-life and safety of vacuum-packed pork loin meat. The results obtained suggested that, aside from the addition of essential oils, the marination process allowed to reduce meat pH, thus improving its water holding capacity. Instrumental and sensorial tests showed that the marination also enhanced the tenderness of meat samples, with those marinated with essential oils being the most positively perceived by the panelists. In addition, microbiological data indicated that the marinated samples showed a lower microbial load of the main spoiling microorganisms compared to the control samples, from the 6th to the 13th day of storage, regardless of the addition of essential oils. Marination also allowed to inhibit the pathogens Salmonella enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus, thus increasing the microbiological safety of the product. Overall outcomes suggest that the oil/beer/lemon marinade solution added with essential oils might represent a promising strategy to improve both qualitative and sensory characteristics as well as the safety of meat products.

Use of masking strategies to avoid the boar taint perception in chorizo: consumers' acceptability

The production of entire male pigs is an alternative to surgical castration. However, boar taint may be present in the meat of entire male animals. The aim of the present paper was to investigate the acceptability and sensory properties of chorizo, elaborated under three different levels of androstenone [castrated 0-0.3 mg / kg, medium 0.4-0.9 mg / kg and high 1-2.75 mg / kg] and two masking strategies [rosemary, and rosemary plus smoking] using a Check-All-That-Apply questionnaire. The results showed that, of the strategies employed, the rosemary plus smoked chorizo was the most effective masking strategy to reduce the boar taint in chorizos with high androstenone level (3.7% selection rate for animal flavour), while the closest to the ideal product, according to consumers' description, was high androstenone level plus rosemary chorizo.

Acceptability of Dry-Cured Belly (Pancetta) from Entire Males, Immunocastrates or Surgical Castrates: Study with Slovenian Consumers

Abandoning of male piglets castration in the European Union is a challenge for the pork production sector in particular for high-quality dry-cured traditional products. The information on consumer acceptability of dry-cured products from alternatives is limited, so the objective was to test the consumer acceptability of unsmoked traditional dry-cured belly (Kraška panceta) processed from three sex categories, i.e., surgical castrates (SC), entire males (EM) and immunocastrates (IC). Consumers (n = 331) were asked to taste dry-cured bellies from EM, IC and SC and to score the taste appreciation on a 9 cm unstructured scale. After tasting the pancetta of three sex categories, the consumers attributed the lowest acceptability scores to SC, whereas IC and EM received similar scores. Only about a quarter of consumers attributed the lowest score to EM, mainly when boar taint compounds were present. The results of this study indicate that a certain share of consumers was sensitive to taste deficiencies and that the leanness of this product is very important for consumers.

Reduction of androstenone perception in pan-fried boar meat by different masking strategies

BACKGROUND

Consumers highly sensitive to androstenone María (AND) will probably reject meat from entire male pigs, which tends to have high levels of this hormone. To avoid this, the effect of different masking strategies (sprinkling with mixed spices or fennel, marinating and breading with garlic-parsley or curry) on the sensory parameters of pork loin chops obtained from entire animals with high levels of AND (1.0-2.9 mg kg^-1 AND in fat) and castrated animals (<0.4 mg kg^-1 AND in fat), both with low levels of skatole (<0.1 mg kg^-1 skatole in fat) was investigated.

RESULTS

The garlic-parsley breadcrumbs led to the highest reduction in the perception of AND compared with the other masking strategies used, and preserved the juiciness of the product. There was a negative correlation between AND and fat content.

CONCLUSION

AND odor and flavor can be reduced in meat from entire male pigs by using suitable strategies, the best strategy being the garlic-parsley breadcrumbs. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

The use of smoke as a strategy for masking boar taint in sausages and bacon

Smoke has often been recommended as a masking agent for boar taint. However, guidelines on how much smoke is necessary have not been established. We compared different smoking parameters in bacon (smoking times) and sausages (smoking times and use of liquid smoke). In streaky bacon from entire male pigs with skatole concentrations of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentrations of up to 5.8 μg/g in the neck fat, three smoking times were compared: 10, 30 and 60 min. Boar taint was partially, but not fully, masked. The longer the smoking time, the better the masking effect. In sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentration of up to 3.6 μg/g (the meat part) or 2.4 μg/g (the fat part) in the neck fat, smoking for 40 and 80 min fully masked the boar taint, whereas only a minor effect was seen after 10 and 20 min smoking. Liquid smoke (0.1%) did not mask boar taint when added to sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of 0.36 μg/g (meat) or 0.38 μg/g (fat) and androstenone concentration of 2.3 μg/g (meat) and 2.9 μg/g (fat). To effectively mask boar taint, an intense smoked flavour is therefore necessary, and the longer the smoking time, the better. In contrast, the use of liquid smoke mixed into the product was not effective in the concentrations used in the current study.

Consumers' sensitivity to androstenone and the evaluation of different cooking methods to mask boar taint

Boar taint is an unpleasant odour and flavour present in some entire male pigs that is due to the presence of androstenone and skatole. The aim of the study was to assess the sensitivity of 150 consumers to androstenone and to compare the acceptability and liking of meat from castrated and entire pigs, cooked with different cooking methods. Meat samples consisted of loins from castrated (CM) and entire male pigs (EM) with high levels of androstenone cooked by two cooking methods: sous-vide and fried/breaded with garlic and parsley. Consumers evaluated smell and flavour acceptability, and overall liking of CM and EM for each cooking method. The results of the study showed that dislike of androstenone odour increased significantly with sensitivity. The results of acceptability and overall liking were similar in CM and EM for both cooking methods. Therefore, the two cooking methods used in the study may be useful to mask boar taint.

Yeast inoculation as a strategy to improve the physico-chemical and sensory properties of reduced salt fermented sausages produced with entire male fat

Yeast inoculation of dry fermented sausages manufactured with entire male fat was evaluated as a strategy to improve sausage quality. Four different formulations with entire male/gilt back fat and inoculated/non-inoculated with Debaryomyces hansenii were manufactured. The use of entire male back fat produced the highest weight losses, hardness and chewiness in dry sausages. Consumers clearly distinguished samples according to drying time and D. hansenii inoculation while the use of entire/gilt back fat was not highly perceived. The presence of androstenone and skatole was close to their sensory thresholds. Androstenone was not degraded during the process but skatole was affected by yeast inoculation. D. hansenii growth on the surface regulated water release during ripening, reduced hardness and chewiness in entire male sausages and resulted with similar texture to gilt sausages. Yeast inoculation inhibited lipid oxidation providing fruity odours and less oxidized fatty sausages in the sensory analysis. The effectiveness of yeast to mask boar taint was demonstrated by sensory analysis.

A procedure for sensory detection of androstenone in meat and meat products from entire male pigs: Development of a panel training

This study represents a proposal for training sensory panels in androstenone (AND) perception in meat and meat products. The procedure consists of four main parts: (1) selection and training of a sensory panel (11 panelists) using standards with Vaseline oil media as carriers of AND and skatole (SKA); (2) developing a training method AND detection in meat; (3) dry cured meat product and (4) cooked meat product. All candidates were able to distinguish between AND, SKA and AND+SKA in Vaseline oil, order AND solutions with different concentrations and classify them in the three categories: low, medium and high. The panel was able to differentiate the meat in the three categories, but only the high level in meat products. Due to the individual features in AND perception, specific training for each type of product is required.

Regulation of acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs) in beef by spice marination

Quorum sensing (QS) is a signaling mechanism used by bacteria to communicate each other through the release of auto-inducing signaling molecules. Despite the fact that bacteria regulate its phenotypes by QS mechanism, their potential role in meat spoilage is not yet elucidated. In the current study, beef samples were analyzed for its microbial association and for the presence of N-acyl-homoserine-lactone (AHLs) throughout the storage experiments. Isolates were screened for AHLs production and selected spices were screened for their quorum sensing inhibitory (QSI) activity. In addition, effect of spices on AHLs production of Y. enterocolitica was quantified through high performance thin layer chromatography (HP-TLC). Outcome showed that microbial association of beef mainly consists of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and Enterobacteriaceae. Samples stored at both aerobic and modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) exhibited higher counts whereas; marinated samples stored at MAP exhibited the lowest. It was found that out of 35 isolates Y. enterocolitica induced reporter strain CV026 and its cell-free supernatant contained 26.36 nM/100 ml of AHLs when compared to standard. Among the tested spices, C. cyminum exhibited pronounced results by significantly reducing the AHLs concentration up to 47.75 %. Findings revealed the presence of quorum molecules (AHLs) in beef meat throughout the spoilage process and spices can acts as quorum quenchers to influence the spoilage rate by reducing AHLs production.

Consumers' perception and acceptance of boiled and fermented sausages from strongly boar tainted meat

Characteristic off-flavours may occur in uncastrated male pigs depending on the accumulation of androstenone and skatole. Feasible processing of strongly tainted carcasses is challenging but gains in importance due to the European ban on piglet castration in 2018. This paper investigates consumers' acceptability of two sausage types: (a) emulsion-type (BOILED) and (b) smoked raw-fermented (FERM). Liking (9 point scales) and flavour perception (check-all-that-apply with both, typical and negatively connoted sensory terms) were evaluated by 120 consumers (within-subject design). Proportion of tainted boar meat (0, 50, 100%) affected overall liking of BOILED, F (2, 238)=23.22, P<.001, but not of FERM sausages, F (2, 238)=0.89, P=.414. Consumers described the flavour of BOILED-100 as strong and sweaty. In conclusion, FERM products seem promising for processing of tainted carcasses whereas formulations must be optimized for BOILED in order to eliminate perceptible off-flavours. Boar taint rejection thresholds may be higher for processed than those suggested for unprocessed meat cuts.

Boar taint compound levels in back fat versus meat products: Do they correlate?

Surgical castration of male pigs will soon be abandoned, turning a major advantage of this practice, the elimination of boar taint, into the biggest challenge for pig industry when raising intact male pigs becomes common practice. To map the (economical) consequences in relation to boar-taint consumer acceptance, as well as offer a processing strategy for tainted carcasses to stockholders, the current study investigated not only back fat boar taint levels, but additionally generated information on the levels of boar taint compounds recovered after the production of commercially relevant meat products using UHPLC-HRMS laboratory analysis. Our results demonstrate that levels of androstenone, skatole and indole in back fat and meat products tend to correlate strongly, particularly in fatty meat products (generally r>0.80). Concentration values in the edible (lean) meat fraction were significantly lower compared to back fat and fat sampled from fresh or processed meat (p<0.05).

Effect of the use of entire male fat in the production of reduced salt fermented sausages

The effect of the use of entire male fat and salt reduction in dry fermented sausages was evaluated. Four different sausage formulations were manufactured with back fat from gilt or entire male and two different salt contents. The physicochemical parameters, sensory characteristics, texture, lipid composition, volatile compounds and boar taint compounds were analysed. The use of entire male fat produced the highest weight losses producing high hardness and chewiness while salt reduction produced a decrease in hardness. Entire male sausages had the lowest oxidation values due to the low content of C18:2n6 while salt reduction did not affect the oxidation process. Boar taint odour was due to the presence of androstenone and skatole but entire male fat sausages had different generations of volatile compounds. The presence of androstenone was perceived by consumers as abnormal odours but also other sausage characteristics such as texture (high hardness) and oxidation were detected due to the different chemical compositions of entire males versus gilts.

Evaluation of different strategies to mask boar taint in cooked sausage

The use of smoking and/or spices was evaluated for their ability to mask boar taint in frankfurters manufactured from entire pigs with high levels of androstenone. Five frankfurter types were considered: control, smoked, flavouring+smoked, spicy and spicy+smoked. A trained panel in androstenone perception carried out a sensory profile on the different sausages. The highest scores for androstenone perception (odour, flavour and aftertaste) were found in frankfurters that included no masking strategy which indicated the effectiveness of the evaluated strategies. Regarding masking strategies, the contribution of spices and smoking to sensory perception of frankfurters was detected by the panellists. Smoking was the best strategy to mask androstenone odour, while the use of spices masked androstenone odour to a greater extent than androstenone flavour. Only the combined use of spices and smoking was able to eliminate the perception of androstenone. The application of this strategy in frankfurters could be an alternative in the commercialization of entire pigs.

Consumers' segmentation based on the acceptability of meat from entire male pigs with different boar taint levels in four European countries: France, Italy, Spain and United Kingdom

Two consumer studies were conducted to know the acceptability of pork with different boar taint levels: test 1 performed in Spain (n=126) and United Kingdom (n=146), and test 2 performed in France (n=139) and Italy (n=140). Each test had 3 types of pork: 'Female meat', 'Low boar tainted meat', and a third type was 'Medium boar tainted meat' or 'High boar tainted meat'. Three main clusters were identified on the basis of 'How delicious do you find this meat?': 1-Pork lovers, 2-Boar meat lovers, 3-Reject boar tainted meat. Additionally, in test 2, a fourth cluster was identified: 'Reject low tainted meat'. A group of 16.2-38.2% of consumers rejected meat from boars, and another group of 12.4-21.7% rated the meat with medium or high levels of boar taint better than the meat from females, identifying a niche for meat from medium and high levels of boar taint, and suggesting the need to select carcasses on the basis of boar taint.

Pig meat quality from entire males

This paper constitutes an updated review of the production and meat quality aspects of rearing entire male pigs. Since a major obstacle in rearing entire males is the incidence of boar taint, possible methods for detection are also summarised. Safe and fast methods for detection of boar taint would be valuable in avoiding complaints from consumers. Pig meat quality is determined by many aspects, among which odour and taste are the most important attributes. Odour may be negatively affected by the presence of a pheromonal steroid, androstenone, and a fermentation product of l-tryptophan, skatole. Male pigs are surgically castrated in many countries to minimise the risk of accumulation of high levels of androstenone and skatole. Raising entire male pigs is more profitable because they have superior production characteristics and improved meat quality due to leaner carcasses and higher protein content, as compared to castrated pigs. Furthermore, surgical castration is negative from an animal welfare point of view. In most studies, no differences in sensory quality have been found between lean meat from entire male pigs with low levels of androstenone and skatole and pork from castrates and females. The question that remains is: which substances are responsible for boar taint besides androstenone and skatole and whether they need to be considered? The threshold values used for androstenone and skatole might also be too high for highly sensitive persons. Recent research shows that a human odorant receptor, ORD7D4, is involved in sensitivity to androstenone. If the ORD7D4 genotypes of consumer and expert panels are known, this might facilitate consumer studies in the future. There is still a great need for rapid on/at-line detection methods in abattoirs for identifying carcasses with unacceptable levels of boar taint compounds. Several emerging rapid technologies with a potential for boar taint detection have been investigated. They represent various measurement principles such as chemical sensor arrays (electronic noses), mass-spectrometry fingerprinting, ultra-fast gas chromatography, gas-phase spectrometry and biosensors. An industrial detection method should allow 100% correct classification of both acceptable and not-acceptable samples with regard to boar taint sorting criteria. There are, however, still too high a percentage of false negatives ranging from 5% to 20%. In addition, these methods do not yet seem to fulfil the industrial specifications with regard to cost efficiency, simplicity and analysis time. There is still no dedicated measurement technology available for on/at-line detection of boar-tainted carcasses that measures both androstenone and skatole.

Consumer studies on sensory acceptability of boar taint: a review

Boar taint can be found in meat from boars and affects consumer acceptability of pork. The aim of this review is: (1) to describe different aspects of the existing methodologies used in consumer studies when evaluating boar taint from a sensory point of view, (2) to draw conclusions on different studies regarding the acceptability of meat from entire males, and (3) to discuss a possible harmonization of the different aspects to be considered when performing consumer studies on boar taint. This paper focuses on different aspects of studies previously carried out such as the country of assessment, the location of the test, the cooking procedure, the type of meat samples evaluated, the attributes and scales used, consumer profile, the results obtained, and the effect of androstenone sensitivity of the consumers on boar meat acceptability. A discussion on the possibility of a harmonization of the different aspects is also performed and final remarks and considerations have been drawn.

Effects of live weight and processing on the sensory traits, androstenedione concentration and 5-alpha-androst-16-en-3-one (androstenone) concentration in boar meat

Twenty-nine crossbred boars were used to evaluate the effects of live weight and processing on the sensory attributes and concentrations of androstenedione and androstenone (boar taint) in boar meat. Boars were stratified by litter across six weight group endpoints (90.9, 95.5, 100.0, 104.5, 109.1, and 113.6kg). Back fat and longissimus muscle from the lumbar region were used for androstenone determination, proximate analysis and sensory evaluation. Hams were cured for sensory analysis and were used to determine androstenone concentrations. Androstenone as an off-flavor did not differ (P>0.05) among treatments for longissimus lean or cured hams and was found to be in the "threshold" to "none detected" range. Back fat androstenone concentration was positively correlated (P<0.05) to hot carcass weight, however, lean androstenone concentration was not (P>0.05). No relationship was found (P>0.05) between androstenone concentration and days on feed, average daily gain or androstenedione concentration. Additionally, further processing decreased androstenone concentration by approximately 29%.