Nutritional composition of dry-cured ham and its role in a healthy diet

Incorporating Olive By-Products in Bísaro Pig Diets: Effect on Dry-Cured Product Quality

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of incorporating olive cake into the diet of indigenous Bísaro pigs on the quality of processed meat products. To this end, loins and "cachaços" were processed using a standardized manufacturing flowchart to produce dry-cured products. The two products were manufactured using the same formulation, ingredients, and curing process. Concerning the physicochemical composition, there were significant differences between the two products for the parameters of aw (p < 0.001), moisture (p < 0.001), total fat (p < 0.001), protein (p < 0.001), and haem pigments (p < 0.001). The diet significantly impacted the NaCl content (p < 0.05). However, neither the product nor the diet affected the fractions of saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (p > 0.05). However, a significant difference was observed for n-3 (p < 0.05). Adding olive cake increased these fatty acids, and the diet containing 25% centrifuged olive cake showed the highest levels for both products. Compared with the control, the diets containing olive cake had a higher content of n-3 fatty acids, resulting in a lower PUFA n-6/n-3 ratio (p < 0.01).

Effect of Olive Cake in Bísaro Pig Feed on Physicochemical Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Three Different Muscles of Dry-Cured Shoulder

The purpose of this study was to assess the following effects: (1) the inclusion of olive in the animal's diet on the dry-cured shoulder; (2) the effect of curing on three different muscles (infraspinatus, supraspinatus, and subscapular); (3) the effect of different curing times (fresh shoulder, 6 months curing, and 12 months curing). For this purpose, forty shoulders were used, followed by a cold nitrite-free curing process with controlled humidity and temperature, according to the flowchart of a company that implements highly stringent standards in terms of food safety and quality. Samples were evaluated for their physicochemical composition and lipid profile. All the physicochemical composition parameters were significantly different (p < 0.001) in the three muscles studied. As might be expected, the curing times from the fresh product to the final product were also significantly different for all the parameters studied in this work. Regarding the inclusion of olive cake, it was found that treatment with a base diet + 10% exhausted olive cake (T4) showed higher levels for the parameters NaCl, collagen, and total fat. As for the fatty acid profile, in general, the olive did not influence the final product. On the other hand, we found that the type of muscle and the curing time of the cured shoulder had a significant influence on the fatty acid profile. We should also point out that there are significant differences in the interaction between curing time and muscle, particularly in saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), as well as the lipid quality indices. Canonical discriminant analysis is viable for evaluating the evolution of the curing process, discriminating and classifying curing times, and evaluating the muscles of the Bísaro pork shoulder. Also, the introduction of olive cake into the animal diet does not affect the final product obtained.

Long-matured cured meats from Poland and Europe compared - An overview

This review aimed to present different varieties of long-matured cured meats, such as cold cuts, sausages, and hams produced in Poland, and compare them with similar European products. Moreover, we briefly presented the impact of meat products on human health. Due to its significant production in Poland, most meat products are made of pork. Polish long-matured, cured meats are nutritious, provide essential amino acids and micronutrients, and are a balanced source of monosaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). We suggest choosing cured Polish meat products matured with probiotics to provide pro-health benefits. Although long-matured sausages are essential and valuable meat products in Poland, they should be consumed moderately as an element of a balanced, diverse diet.

Effects of Whey Peptides on the Quality of Pork Ball Preprepared Dishes during Repeated Freezing-Thawing

This study evaluated the effect of FI (Fraction I, molecular weight < 1 kDa), which is separated from natural whey protein, on the antioxidant activity, sensory quality, color, texture characteristics, and microbial growth of pork balls during repeated freeze-thaw cycles (F-T cycles). The results indicated that pork balls mixed with FI significantly improved in quality after repeating the F-T cycle, especially with the addition of 10% FI. The quality was improved significantly after repeated F-T cycles by adding 10% FI, and the antioxidant activity after seven F-T cycles decreased by 40.78%, a similar result to that obtained with the addition of 0.02% BHA. In addition, FI effectively reduced the sensory damage of pork balls caused by repeated freezing-thawing and also significantly inhibited the growth of microorganisms. In summary, FI not only has excellent antioxidant capacity under repeated freeze-thaw conditions but also has significant antibacterial and quality preservation effects and is expected to be quantified as a kind of natural food additive with antibacterial and antioxidant properties. This paper not only explores the effect of FI on the quality characteristics of frozen and thawed pork balls in prepared dishes but also provides a theoretical basis for the application of whey polypeptides in prepared meat.

Quality Control of Jinhua Ham from the Influence between Proteases Activities and Processing Parameters: A Review

Endogenous proteases are significant for Jinhua ham quality. Protein degradation affects the chemical traits, texture and the formation of flavor substances. Protease activities are affected by different process parameters, such as processing temperature, maturation time, salt content and the drying rate. They affect ham quality, which can be controlled by process parameters. The influences of key factors on Jinhua ham quality are briefly summarized, which can provide a theoretical basis for the selection of specific parameters in dry-cured ham processing. Furthermore, some suggestions are proposed for correcting and improving the flavor and textural defects of ham, yet the effectiveness depends on the operating conditions. The determination of enzyme activity is not real-time and unsupervised at the moment. Future research will focus on the determination of the actual endogenous protease activity and the quantitative relationship between the enzyme activity and main processing parameters.

Influence of Pig Genetic Line and Salt Reduction on Peptide Production and Bioactivity of Dry-Cured Hams

Ham (Jamón) is a product of great value in Spanish gastronomy, although experts have recommended reducing its consumption due to its high salt content and its relationship with cardio-vascular diseases due to the increase in blood pressure it may cause. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate how the reduction of salt content and the pig genetic line influence bioactivity in boneless hams. For this purpose, 54 hams were studied, 18 boneless Iberian hams (RIB), 18 boneless white hams from commercial cross-bred pigs (RWC), and 18 salted and traditionally processed Iberian hams (TIB) to check if the pig genetic line (RIB vs. RWC) or the processing (RIB vs. TIB) affect the peptide production and bioactivity of the hams. The pig genetic line significantly affected the activity of ACE-I and DPPH, with RWC having the highest ACE-I activity and RIB having the highest antioxidative activity. This coincides with the results obtained in the identification of the peptides and the bioactivity analysis performed. Salt reduction positively affected the different hams, influencing their proteolysis and increasing their bioactivity in traditionally cured hams.

Untargeted Metabolomics Combined with Sensory Analysis to Evaluate the Chemical Changes in Coppa Piacentina PDO during Different Ripening Times

Ripening time is known to drive the chemical and sensory profiles of dry meat products, thus potentially affecting the final quality of the product. Starting from these background conditions, the aim of this work was to shed light, for the first time, on the chemical modifications of a typical Italian PDO meat product-namely, Coppa Piacentina-during ripening, to find correlations between its sensory quality and the biomarker compounds related to the progress of ripening. The ripening time (from 60 to 240 days) was found to deeply modify the chemical composition of this typical meat product, providing potential biomarkers of both oxidative reactions and sensory attributes. The chemical analyses revealed that there is typically a significant decrease in the moisture content during ripening, likely due to increased dehydration. In addition, the fatty acid profile showed that the distribution of polyunsaturated fatty acids significantly (p < 0.05) decreased during ripening, because of their high susceptibility to oxidation and conversion to intermediate and secondary molecules. An untargeted metabolomics approach, coupled with unsupervised and supervised multivariate statistics, highlighted a significant impact (prediction scores > 1) of lipid oxidation during ripening time, with some metabolites (such as γ -glutamyl-peptides, hydroperoxy-fatty acids, and glutathione) being particularly discriminant in predicting the changes observed. The discriminant metabolites were coherent with the progressive increase of peroxide values determined during the entire ripening period. Finally, the sensory analysis outlined that the highest degree of ripening provided greater color intensity of the lean part, slice firmness, and chewing consistency, with glutathione and γ-glutamyl-glutamic acid establishing the highest number of significant correlations with the sensory attributes evaluated. Taken together, this work highlights the importance and validity of untargeted metabolomics coupled with sensory analysis to investigate the comprehensive chemical and sensory changes to dry meat during ripening.

Characterization of the Nero Siciliano Pig Fecal Microbiota after a Liquid Whey-Supplemented Diet

The utilization of dairy by-products as animal feed, especially in swine production, is a strategy to provide functional ingredients to improve gut health. This study explored the potential effect of a liquid whey-supplemented diet on the fecal microbiota of eleven pigs belonging to the Nero Siciliano breed. Five pigs were assigned to the control group and fed with a standard formulation feed, whereas six pigs were assigned to the experimental group and fed with the same feed supplemented with liquid whey. Fecal samples were collected from each individual before the experimental diet (T0), and one (T1) and two (T2) months after the beginning of the co-feed supplementation. Taxonomic analysis, based on the V3-V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA, showed that pig feces were populated by a complex microbial community with a remarkable abundance of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Spirochaetes phyla and Prevotella, Lactobacillus, Clostridium, and Treponema genera. Alpha and beta diversity values suggested that the experimental diet did not significantly affect the overall fecal microbiota diversity. However, analysis of abundance at different time points revealed significant variation in several bacterial genera, suggesting that the experimental diet potentially affected some genera of the microbial community.

Desorption electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry imaging of carnitine and imidazole dipeptides in pork chop tissues

Carnitine is essential for energy production and lipid metabolism in skeletal muscle. Carnosine and its methylated analogs anserine and balenine are histidine-containing imidazole dipeptides, which are antioxidative compounds. They are major health-related components in meat; however, analytical technique to investigate their distribution among tissues have not fully established. Here, we performed desorption electrospray ionization (DESI)-mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) of pork chop sections containing longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle (loin), intermuscular fat tissue, transparent tissue, and spinalis muscle to investigate the distributions of carnitine and imidazole dipeptides. Liquid chromatography-MS revealed that the concentrations of carnitine, carnosine, anserine, and balenine were 11.0 ± 0.9, 330.1 ± 15.5, 21.2 ± 1.5, and 9.6 ± 0.5 mg/100 g, respectively. In the mass spectrum obtained by DESI-MSI, peaks corresponding to the chemical formulae of carnitine and imidazole dipeptides were detected. DESI-MSI provided definite identification of carnitine, while DESI-tandem MSI (MS/MSI) was necessary to accurately visualize carnosine, anserine, and balenine. Carnitine and these imidazole dipeptides were mainly distributed in the loin and spinalis muscle, while their distribution was not uniform in both muscle tissues. In addition, the balance between both tissues were different. The concentration of carnitine was higher in the spinalis muscle than that in the loin, while those of imidazole dipeptides were higher in the loin than those in the spinalis muscle. These results were consistent with those obtained by liquid chromatography-MS quantification, suggest that DESI-MSI analysis is useful for the distribution analysis of carnitine and imidazole dipeptides in meat.

Bioactive and Sensory Di- and Tripeptides Generated during Dry-Curing of Pork Meat

Dry-cured pork products, such as dry-cured ham, undergo an extensive proteolysis during manufacturing process which determines the organoleptic properties of the final product. As a result of endogenous pork muscle endo- and exopeptidases, many medium- and short-chain peptides are released from muscle proteins. Many of them have been isolated, identified, and characterized, and some peptides have been reported to exert relevant bioactivity with potential benefit for human health. However, little attention has been given to di- and tripeptides, which are far less known, although they have received increasing attention in recent years due to their high potential relevance in terms of bioactivity and role in taste development. This review gathers the current knowledge about di- and tripeptides, regarding their bioactivity and sensory properties and focusing on their generation during long-term processing such as dry-cured pork meats.

Chemical, Physicochemical and Sensorial Characterization of Nitrite-Free Dry-Cured Bísaro Shoulders

The aim of the current experiment was to characterize and evaluate the effect of the dry-curing process on chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and sensory characteristics of the dry-cured Bísaro shoulders. For this purpose, thirty-eight raw forelegs were used, and no nitrites were added during the dry-curing process. This process increased protein, fat, ash content, and pH, with a decrease in moisture and water activity (p < 0.001). The dry-cured shoulders were darker (L*), less red (a*), and less yellow (b*) than the raw shoulders (p < 0.001), and this may be mainly due to the moisture reduction. The proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) decreased during processing, whereas the saturated fatty acids (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) increased (p < 0.001), which could be related with the oxidative degradation. The sensory analysis showed that dry-cured Bísaro shoulders presented similar organoleptic characteristics to other dry-cured meat products. Also, the chemical composition and fatty acid profile of the dry-cured Bísaro shoulder showed results comparable to those of other cured products. This study revealed that it is possible to obtain safer and healthier dry-cured Bísaro shoulder products judging by these characteristics, since nitrites were not added in its preparation. These findings, along with the product’s high sensory attributes similar to more popular products such as ham, would give more advantage for its acceptability and market demand.

Effect of Muscle Fibre Type on the Fatty Acids Profile and Lipid Oxidation of Dry-Cured Venison SM (semimembranosus) Muscle

The aim of the study was to describe the effect of fibre type on the fatty acid profile and lipid oxidation observed in dry-cured ham produced from individual semimembranosus venison (roe-deer, fallow deer, deer and wild boar) muscles. The results indicated that wild boar meat was characterised by the highest percentage of IA fibres and it contained the higher percentage of MUFA, but a low of PUFA and SFA, and was characterised by a(n-6)/(n-3) ratio lower than in the case of deer meat and greater susceptibility to oxidative changes. The highest percentage of SFA, and the lowest of MUFA and PUFA, was recorded in fallow deer meat, which was also characterised by the highest percentage of white fibres. The curing and drying processes increased the percentage share of SFA and the susceptibility of muscle lipids to oxidation, decreased the percentage of PUFA, and caused insignificant changes in the (n-6)/(n-3) ratio of fatty acids. The products were also characterised by a low amount of fat.

Effect of Milk Thistle (Silybum marianum) Supplementation on Pork Offal Quality

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of milk thistle supplementation of fattener pig feeds on physical and chemical properties of pork offal. The experiments were conducted on 60 fatteners (group C—control (30 pigs) and group E—experimental (30 pigs)). The experimental group was supplemented with ground milk thistle (Silybum marianum) at 7 g/kg feed. The offal (tongues, kidneys, hearts, lungs and livers) was analyzed for weight, pH, WHC, water, protein, fat, energy value, fatty acid profile and content of major and trace elements. The present study shows that milk thistle added to fattener pig diets increased pH45 and pH24 values in most of the analyzed offal and significantly (p ≤ 0.01) decreased the weight of heart and lungs and increased the weight of liver and kidneys. Hearts, lungs and kidneys of the experimental group contained more fat and the liver less, than the same offal of the control group. As regards the content of elements, the dietary supplement most often had an effect on the heart and lungs. In general, milk thistle supplemented in fattener diets had modified the physical parameters and chemical composition of the analyzed products.

Seaweed Inclusion in Finishing Lamb Diet Promotes Changes in Micronutrient Content and Flavour-Related Compounds of Raw Meat and Dry-Cured Leg (Fenalår)

Innovative feeding strategies tend to improve the quality properties of raw material and dry-cured products. In the present study, Norwegian White female lambs (n = 24) were finished during 35 days on three different diets: control (CD), control supplemented with seaweed (5% DM) (SD), and pasture (PD). The quality of raw meat (Semimembranosus + Adductor) and deboned dry-cured lamb leg (fenalår; n = 24) was studied. The heme, SFA, MUFA, and PUFA content in raw meat was not affected with finishing diet. The SD significantly increased the selenium, iodine, and arsenic content in raw meat and in the dry-cured leg the iodine and arsenic. The dry-cured leg from SD-lamb had the highest amount of iodine with 130 µg I/100 g which corresponds to 60% of Adequate Intake. Aldehydes, ketones, and esters in raw meat and dry-cured lamb leg were significantly affected by finishing diet; CD showed increased esters in raw meat and aldehydes in the dry-cured leg compared to SD and PD. The significantly higher content of simple sugars, mannose being the most dominant, was found in the dry-cured leg from SD-lamb compared to CD and PD. Finishing diets had no effect on the taste profile of dry-cured lamb leg. This study showed the potential of seaweed in iodine biofortification of lamb meat and dry-cured products. Iodine-rich meat products should reduce iodine-deficiency among humans.

Effect of Salt Reduction on the Quality of Boneless Dry-Cured Ham from Iberian and White Commercially Crossed Pigs

Iberian dry-cured ham has great value in a traditional Spanish diet, although experts have recommended its consumption should be reduced because of its high salt content and link to cardiovascular diseases. Eighteen boneless Iberian hams (RIB), eighteen boneless white commercially crossed pig hams (RWC), and eighteen traditionally salted and processed Iberian hams (TIB) were manufactured to check whether the breed (RIB vs. RWC) or the processing (RIB vs. TIB) affects their physical–chemical and sensory characteristics. Moisture, protein, total nitrogen, nonprotein nitrogen, proteolysis index, NaCl, and ash contents were higher in RWC, contrary to the fat values, which were more than double in RIB. All macrominerals, except Ca, were affected by the processing stage and breed, whereas only the micromineral Zn was higher in RWC. The breed did not affect the free amino acid content; however, the total content was slightly higher in RWC. Regarding the manufacturing process, the deboning of RIB allowed the reduction of salt by over 30%. However, the microbiological stability was not affected, resulting in a safe product. Although deboning and salt reduction significantly affect the hardness, adhesiveness, deformation, and elasticity of dry-cured hams, consumers value all sensory parameters with higher scores in RIB.

New Method for Obtaining a Bioactive Essence Extracted from Iberian Ham Fat Rich in MUFA and Antioxidants

Iberian ham is one of the most representative Spanish products and presents an excellent nutritional and sensory quality. Iberian ham trimming fat is considered a by-product and to give a new use to this remaining part could represent a healthy and innovative option for obtaining sustainable foods. The purpose of this work was to obtain a new bioactive ingredient from Iberian ham trimming fat with the highest amount of antioxidants and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), using a new non-invasive solvent-free method. To obtain the essence, two different extraction procedures were carried out. After fatty acid characterization, degree of acidity, peroxide index and a basic sensory analysis were performed. Antioxidant in vitro activity and total phenolic compounds (TPC) were also determined. This new ingredient showed a better sensory profile than raw ham fat, a lower degree of acidity, a higher content of MUFAs, and also showed a higher antioxidant capacity and an increase in phenolic compounds compared to the raw material. This bioactive essence could be used as a food, a cosmetic or a nutraceutical ingredient to prevent certain diseases related to oxidative stress and could also contribute to the maintenance of the circular economy.

Formation of Zn-protoporphyrin during the elaboration process of non-nitrified serrano dry-cured hams and its relationship with lipolysis

This study assessed the ZnPP content, heme content, salt content, and instrumental color in the biceps femoris and semimembranosus muscles during the elaboration of Serrano dry-cured ham manufactured without the addition of nitrate and nitrite for 15 months. The effects of lipolysis and lipid oxidation on the content of Zn-protoporphyrin were also investigated in the biceps femoris. We found that the maximum formation of Zn-protoporphyrin occurred between end of resting and 6 months of processing, which coincides with temperature increase during processing and the end of salt equalization. Zn-protoporphyrin further increased in the biceps femoris until 9 months of processing but remained unchanged in the semimembranosus. Free fatty acid content increased till 6 months and then remained unchanged until the end of the process. These findings and those from an in vitro study reinforced the idea that the release of free fatty acids can promote the activity of the endogenous enzyme ferrochelatase and contribute to the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin from heme. However, the content of Zn-protoporphyrin decreased at the end of the processing, which may be due to the progression of lipid oxidation.

Health and safety aspects of traditional European meat products. A review

Meat products constitute one of the most important groups of traditional foods. Thanks to the unique and favorable organoleptic characteristics, and high quality, they are willingly chosen by consumers. Lately, there has been a growing concern over the health aspects of these products. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the nutritional value and factors affecting quality and health safety of traditional meat products on the basis of available literature. The study findings have revealed various issues with uniformity of traditional meat products. Products of the same name may differ substantially considering nutritional value. Reports also indicate that there are some discrepancies which can be attributed to product character (traditional/conventional). They mainly concern the content of moisture, protein, salt, fat, and fatty acid profile. Research suggests that traditional meat products may also be associated with some health safety issues, such as the presence of pathogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrate and nitrite residues, N-nitrosamines, biogenic amines and heavy metals.

Comparison of Chemical Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Traditional Meat Products from Croatia and Montenegro

The aim of this study was to compare chemical composition and fatty acid profile of Croatian and Montenegrin dry-cured meat products and dry-fermented sausages produced using a similar technology. Five types of products (n = 60) from both countries, i.e., prosciutto, sausages, pancetta, dry sirloin, and dry rack, were analysed. Basic chemical compositions and fatty acid methyl esters were determined using the accredited ISO methods. The obtained results showed no significant differences between Croatian and Montenegrin meat products in most of their chemical components, except for pancetta, in which significant differences in moisture ( $p$  = 0.007), fat ( $p$  = 0.016), and sugar ( $p$  = 0.027) contents were established. The highest protein share, significantly differing between the countries of origin, was determined in prosciutto ( $p$  = 0.018) and dry sirloin samples ( $p$  = 0.014). As for individual fatty acids, the most represented was oleic acid (C18 : 1n − 9c, OA) in prosciutto (42.29%–42.34%), followed by palmitic (C16 : 0, PA) and stearic acid (C18 : 0, SA) in Croatian dry sirloin (27.60%) and dry rack (16.08%). The obtained monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), saturated fatty acid (SFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) shares are typical of pork meat products and were in the following decreasing order: 41.97–49.75%, 39.96–45.94%, and 7.69–14.96%, respectively. The n − 6/n − 3 ratios, which were five- to eight-fold higher than recommended, ranged from 14.82 (pancetta, Montenegro) to 25.83 (pancetta, Croatia) with differences between the countries of origin seen only in pancetta samples ( $p$  < 0.001). Lipid quality indices (PUFA/SFA ratios), spanned from 0.17 (dry sirloin, Croatia) to 0.38 (pancetta, Montenegro), were also not in accordance with health recommendations. Since Montenegrin traditional meat products are unexplored yet, the obtained results could facilitate the procedure of their designation of origin and consequently contribute to their valorisation and recognisability in the international market.

Chemical Characteristics of Croatian Traditional Istarski pršut (PDO) Produced from Two Different Pig Genotypes

Chemical characteristics of raw and processed Istarski pršut (PDO) produced from two different pig genotypes were studied with special emphasis on amino and fatty acid composition and factors of lipid stability. Raw hams of Large White (LW)xLandrace (L), and (LWxL)xDuroc (D) pig genotypes were used in the study (20 hams of each genotype). All left raw hams from each carcass were processed in accordance with the PDO specification of Istarski pršut, and other half (the right ones) of LWxL)xD genotype were used for analyses of raw hams (fresh muscles). Istarski pršut was evaluated on the basis of the chemical parameters of the raw and matured lean ham. The process of dry curing significantly influenced the chemical properties of Istarski pršut. Despite the higher content of intramuscular fat and polyunsaturated fatty acids, the fat of (LWxL)xD ham was much more resistant to hydrolysis and oxidation, suggesting that fatty acid profile and other factors, also play a significant role. Significant differences between pig genotypes in the amino acid and fatty acid profiles were found. The analyzed Istarski pršut may be distinguished by prints of multivariate chemometric statistical analysis, based on their amino acid and fatty acid compositions.

Influence of Muscle Type on Physicochemical Parameters, Lipolysis, Proteolysis, and Volatile Compounds throughout the Processing of Smoked Dry-Cured Ham

The influence of muscle type (biceps femoris, BF and semimembranosus, SM) on physicochemical parameters, volatile compounds, and the extent of proteolysis and lipolysis during the manufacturing of smoked dry-cured ham was investigated. A total of fifty smoked hams were sampled: raw ham, after salting, smoking, drying, and ripening. Almost all physicochemical parameters were affected by muscle type, manufacturing stage and their interactions. SM had lower water, ash, NaCl content, and water activity (aw), while fat and protein content were higher after ripening compared to BF. BF showed higher L*a*b* values compared to SM. The results of texture profile analysis showed that almost all analyzed parameters were influenced by muscle type and production stage. A total of 88 volatile compounds were identified, showing an increase in its number during processing: 31 volatile compounds were identified in raw ham and 72 after the ripening phase. Aldehydes and phenols were the predominant groups of compounds, followed by alcohols, ketones, aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, esters, and terpenes. Muscle type and production phase significantly affected lipid oxidation and the index of proteolysis: in SM, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) increased faster than in BF, while proteolysis had an opposite effect and was more pronounced in BF.

Fatty Acid Composition of Salami Made by Meat from Different Commercial Categories of Indigenous Dairy Cattle

Simple Summary

The Cinisara is a Sicilian breed raised on pasture to produce the Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese. Even if it is penalized by competition with meat breeds, characterized by higher growth rate and yield, the production of fresh meat represents a considerable added value for the smallfarms. The meat of Cinisara is not appreciated, despite having a high content of iron, vitamin E, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and low content of lipids and cholesterol, above all due to incorrect management of the supply chain phases that negatively affects the quality of the final product. Alternative production such as bresaola and salami could contribute to the enhancement of Cinisara meat. The present study investigated the fatty acid profile of salamis produced by processing the meat of young bulls and adult cows with the addition of lard pork to provide additional information to that reported in a previous experiment on physicochemical and sensory properties. The results suggest the possibility of producing cured meats with Cinisara meat, even if the addition of pork lard mitigates some favorable effects deriving from the livestock system of this breed, based on grazing. Further studies should be conducted to investigate the possibility of making cured meats with beef only.

Abstract

In autochthonous dairy cattle farms, the production of salami could represent an alternative commercial opportunity. Therefore, a study was carried out to investigate the fatty acid (FA) composition of salami made using the meat from grazing (GB) or housed (HB) young bulls and grazing adult cows (AC) of Cinisara breed. The products were manufactured by adding 20% of pork lard. Animal category influenced the FA composition, although the addition of lard mitigated the differences found in fresh meat. The salami from GB showed higher polyunsaturated FA content (p ≤ 0.01) and, in particular, a higher level of linoleic acid (p ≤ 0.05), than from other animal categories. Salami made from AC meat showed lower polyunsaturated/saturated FA ratio (p ≤ 0.05), but a better n-6/n-3 ratio compared to HB (p ≤ 0.05), due to the lower content of linoleic acid. Multivariate analysis showed an important influence of animal category on FA composition due to age, feeding system and meat fat content of animals, despite the addition of lard.

Antioxidant activities of peptides derived from mutton ham, Xuanwei ham and Jinhua ham

The aim of the study was to evaluate antioxidant activity of crude peptides with molecular weight less than 3 KDa extracted from Xuanwei ham, Jinhua ham and mutton ham. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS was used for composition analysis of peptides and homologous protein matching. Further, crude peptide (<3 KDa) was purified using G-15 gel filtration chromatography, and the main antioxidant peptide identified. Analysis showed that mutton ham peptide (MHP) has the highest Fe²⁺ chelating ability, whereas Jinhua ham peptide (JHP) had the highest ABTS and DPPH free radical scavenging ability (P < 0.05). A total of 346, 203 and 296 peptides were identified in JHP, Xuanwei ham peptides (XHP) and MHP, respectively. Most of the peptides were derived from myosin, accounting for 21.97% in JHP, 18.72% in XHP, and 21.96% in MHP. Myosin, actin, myoglobin, troponin, tropomyosin and pyruvate kinase proteins were the main source of peptide differences in the three types of dry cured ham.

The Quality and Health-Promoting Value of Meat from Pigs of the Native Breed as the Effect of Extensive Feeding with Acorns

Simple Summary

Modern society is paying more attention to the quality of meat and its production system. Therefore, in this study, we analyzed the possibility of using a native pig breed—Złotnicka Spotted. This breed’s popularity has increased in Poland as it may be a good source of valuable meat. Compared to the meat frompigs of the same breed following intensive fattening, the meat from free-range pigs extensively fed on silage and small amounts of acorns is characterized by a higher content of fat, which acts as a carrier for flavor and, indirectly, juiciness. Moreover, rearing systems with traditional feeding, e.g., with the use of acorns, may have a positive effect on meat quality, dietetic value, and, therefore, consumer acceptance of the product.

Abstract

The popularity of meat from animals of native breeds is growing all over the world, due to consumer belief regarding its higher quality compared to meat from industrial farm animals. In addition, the living conditions (welfare) are of great importance for consumers. We observed the effect of different ways of keeping and feeding pigs of the same conservative breed on the quality of meat and its health benefits. The aim of the study was to compare the meat quality from pigs of the native Złotnicka Spotted breed, fattened intensively or extensively (with conventional farm-produced compound feed and acorns). The meat from free-range pigs extensively fed on silage and small amounts of acorns was characterized by a higher content of fat, which acts as a carrier for flavor and juiciness, as well as higher monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content (p ≤ 0.05) and lower atherogenic, thrombogenic, and peroxidability indices (p ≤ 0.05). It may be stated that the meat quality of the native pig breed is significantly dependent on the housing and feeding method. A more beneficial effect on the quality of meat and its dietetic value, as well as its susceptibility to rancidity, can be obtained throughextensive pig feeding with roughage and the addition of acorns.

Identification of strong candidate genes for backfat and intramuscular fatty acid composition in three crosses based on the Iberian pig

Meat quality has an important genetic component and can be modified by the fatty acid (FA) composition and the amount of fat contained in adipose tissue and muscle. The present study aimed to find genomic regions associated with the FA composition in backfat and muscle (longissimus dorsi) in 439 pigs with three different genetic backgrounds but having the Iberian breed in common. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were performed between 38,424 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) covering the pig genome and 60 phenotypic traits related to backfat and muscle FA composition. Nine significant associated regions were found in backfat on the Sus scrofa chromosomes (SSC): SSC1, SSC2, SSC4, SSC6, SSC8, SSC10, SSC12, and SSC16. For the intramuscular fat, six significant associated regions were identified on SSC4, SSC13, SSC14, and SSC17. A total of 52 candidate genes were proposed to explain the variation in backfat and muscle FA composition traits. GWAS were also reanalysed including SNPs on five candidate genes (ELOVL6, ELOVL7, FADS2, FASN, and SCD). Regions and molecular markers described in our study may be useful for meat quality selection of commercial pig breeds, although several polymorphisms were breed-specific, and further analysis would be needed to evaluate possible causal mutations.

Challenges to reduce or replace NaCl by chloride salts in meat products made from whole pieces - a review

NaCl is fundamental for the development of the physico-chemical, sensorial and microbiological stability in meat products made from whole pieces such as dry-cured lacón, loin, ham, bacon, jerked beef, and pastirma). The substitution of NaCl by other chloride salts (KCl, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂), in order to minimize changes in the processing steps and insertion of new ingredients, is a major challenge for the elaboration of salted meat products in the context of increasing awareness among consumer about sodium consumption and health. This review aims to discuss the potential use of binary, ternary and quaternary salting mixtures in the processing of salted meat products and their effects on microbiological evolution and safety, sensory properties, oxidative reactions on proteins and lipid, and proteolysis and lipolysis reactions. More specifically, the substitution of NaCl by other chloride salts can influence the growth of microorganisms, the formation of toxic compounds, progression of enzymatic and oxidative reactions, and the sensory attributes. Scientific evidences from a food technological point of view, support the use of KCl to partially replace NaCl while major advances/more sophisticated strategies are still necessary to effectively introduce CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ as NaCl replacers. Moreover, further studies regarding the shelf-life and economic problems of the alternatively salted products are still necessary.

Fatty Acid Profiling for the Authentication of Iberian Hams According to the Feeding Regime

The quality and sensory characteristics of Iberian ham are closely related to the pig feeding regime. These are mainly due to the inclusion or not of acorns into the diet, which significantly increases the content of monounsaturated fatty acids in this food product. In this work, the fatty acid profile from subcutaneous fat samples was evaluated and modeled with various chemometric approaches as a potential tool for authentication of Iberian ham from three categories according to the rearing system: "Jamón de Bellota", "Jamón de Cebo de Campo", and "Jamón de Cebo". The application of artificial neural networks provided satisfactory classification and prediction rates, with oleic acid being the most important variable driving this differentiation.

Combined Application of High-Throughput Sequencing and Metabolomics Reveals Metabolically Active Microorganisms During Panxian Ham Processing

Panxian ham, a traditional Chinese dry-cured ham, is protected by national geographical indication. Similar to other fermented foods, the microbial population of dry-cured ham is pivotal to taste and flavor formation. This study aimed to establish the relationship between microorganisms and metabolites during the spontaneous fermentation of Panxian ham. Multivariate analysis based on metabolomics data revealed that continuous metabolic changes occurred during the entire fermentation process, with the most significant changes occurring in the initial stage of ripening. Thirty-one significantly different metabolites (SDMs) were identified as discriminant factor, and pathway analysis suggested that these metabolites were involved in 30 pathways, including alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism; glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism; and arginine and proline metabolism. Microbial community analysis using the Illumina MiSeq platform indicated that the bacterial community was more complex than the fungal community, and their succession regulation differed during processing. At the genus level, 11 bacteria and five fungi were identified as core microbes, of which Staphylococcus was the dominant bacteria and Debaryomyces and Aspergillus were the dominant fungi. Further, statistical redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that Staphylococcus, Debaryomyces, and Chromohalobacter promoted the production of amino and fatty acids; Cobetia and Aspergillus were associated with sugar metabolism, and Kushneria, Penicillium, and Yamadazyma were closely related with organic acids. These findings provide fundamental knowledge regarding the metabolically active microorganisms in Panxian ham, helping industrial processors to develop effective strategies for standardizing quality parameters.

Effect of ELOVL6 on the lipid metabolism of bovine adipocytes

This study investigated the effect of ELOVL6 (elongation of very long chain fatty acids protein 6) and its underlying mechanism on lipid metabolism in bovine adipocytes. The ELOVL6 gene was overexpressed in bovine adipocytes by adenoviruses, and RNA sequencing was performed. Overexpression of ELOVL6 showed reduced proportions of C14:0 (Myristic) and C16:0 (palmitate) fatty acids and increased proportions of C18.0 (stearate) and C20:4n6 (arachidonic) fatty acids in adipocytes. In addition, a total of 2170 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found, containing 1802 up-regulated and 368 down-regulated genes. KEGG pathway analysis revealed that the down-regulated genes were linked with the regulation of lipolysis and the Wnt signaling pathway. The up-regulated genes were mainly involved in the FoxO signaling pathway; the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway; and the cAMP signaling pathway. In conclusion, our results suggest that ELOVL6 could affect the fatty acid composition in bovine adipocytes. We identified numerous related DEGs and pathways, which may provide a basis for studying the function and molecular mechanism of the ELOVL6 gene in regulating lipid metabolism.

Influence of dietary protein content on the chemico-physical profile of dry-cured hams produced by pigs of two breeds

The use of low-protein (LP) feeds is a good strategy to reduce the environmental release of N compounds, but their influence on the quality of the products must be considered. This study explored the influence of LP diet and two pig breeds (BR) with different lean growth ability on the quality traits of dry-cured hams. We analysed 40 left dry-cured hams from pigs of two BR [Duroc-Danbred crosses (Danbred) and Duroc × Large White crosses (Anas)] fed either conventional (147 to 132 g/kg, crude protein) or LP diet. The LP had a crude protein content reduced by 20% with respect to the conventional. The differences in ham quality resulting from protein reduction were small, with a decrease of the protein and an increase of the lipid content of the ham slice in Anas, but not in Danbred (BR × Diet interaction; P = 0.043). Therefore, the use of LP would be feasible and sustainable, without detrimental effects on products. It was found the pig genotypes with different potentials for lean growth may affect the initial ham weight, fat cover and seasoning losses of hams, but they appear to affect little other chemical, physical and textural quality traits of the dry-cured hams.

Evaluation of nutritional profile and total antioxidant capacity of the Mediterranean diet of southern Spain

The objective of this study was to determine the antioxidant capacity of a Mediterranean diet consisting typical dishes from southern Spain. For that, a 5-day diet was developed with typical dishes of Murcia. The antioxidant capacity of the diet was measured using ORACHF, FRAP, and DPPH methods, and the total phenolic compound content of this diet was estimated by Folin-Ciocalteu. About 50% of the antioxidant capacity and 29% of the phenolic compounds per day came from sample 14 (artichokes with ham), whereas only 1% and a 4%, respectively, proceed from sample 16 (gypsy pot). The total antioxidant capacity of the diet was estimated as 9,506.33 ET/100 g/person/day by the ORACHF method, and the total phenolic consume was estimated as 1,839.05 mg GAE/person/day. The proposed diet can be considered an excellent strategy for improving the nutritional status of the population because of its high antioxidant activity and phenolic compound content.

Comparison of physicochemical traits of dry-cured ham from purebred Berkshire and crossbred Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc (LYD) pigs

This study was conducted to compare the physicochemical traits of dry-cured hams made from two different pig breeds: Berkshire and Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc (LYD). Pigs were slaughtered at a live weight of approximately 110 kg and cooled at 0°C for 24 h in a chilling room. Then, the ham portion of the carcasses were cut and processed by dry-curing for physicochemical analyses. The dry-cured hams from Berkshire contain higher crude protein, fat, and ash level than those from LYD, whereas the hams from LYD had higher moisture contents than those from Berkshire(p < 0.05). The pH values of the hams from Berkshire were lower than those from LYD (p < 0.05). The hams from Berkshire had lower L* and b* values than those from LYD (p < 0.05). Palmitoleic acid (C16:1), oleic acid (C18:1), elaidic acid (C18:1t), monounsaturated fatty acids, and ratio of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids (n-6/n-3) in the ham from Berkshire were higher than LYD (p < 0.05). Free amino acids such as aspartic acid, threonine, serine, asparagine, glutamic acid, and lysine in hams from Berkshire were higher than those from LYD (p < 0.05). The microbial population had no significant difference between Berkshire and LYD dry-cured ham. The cross sections of dry cured ham showed difference from different breeds using scanning electron microscope and indicates some differences in texture. Considering the meat quality parameters of ham, hams from Berkshire could provide variety of ham for consumer who are seeking various different qualities and stories.

Effect of moderate and regular consumption of Cinco Jotas acorn-fed 100% Iberian ham on overall cardiovascular risk: A cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact that the moderate and regular consumption of Cinco Jotas acorn-fed 100% Iberian ham has on overall cardiovascular risk, lipid parameters, blood pressure, and weight.

METHODS

A longitudinal, analytical, and quasi-experimental clinical study with repeated measures was carried out with 100 randomly selected individuals in primary care. The sample population included men and women (64%) between the ages of 25 and 55 (42.08, SD 9.6) who were not diagnosed with any cardiovascular illness or diabetes, were not undergoing antihypertensive treatment, nor taking lipid-lowering drugs. There were four visits during a 2-week washout period for the first of three phases. Phases 2 and 3 included an 8-week habitual diet phase followed by an 8-week intervention phase when participants consumed 40 g daily of acorn-fed 100% Cinco Jotas Iberian ham. Measurements of cardiovascular risk factors were taken following the SCORE table. These included total cholesterol, high-density lipoproteins cholesterol (HDL-c), low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-c), triglycerides (TG), and weight.

RESULTS

The average vascular risk (SCORE) was 0.20 (SD 0.49) before the consumption phase and 0.18 (SD 0.48) at the end of the study (p > 0.05). An increase in HDL-c of 5 mg/dl was observed while there was a decrease in LDL-c and TG of 10 mg/dl (p < 0.05). There were no differences in total cholesterol levels, blood pressure, or weight; nor were differences observed in average consumption of calories, protein, lipids, carbohydrates, or alcohol (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The daily consumption of 40 g of Cinco Jotas acorn-fed 100% Iberian ham does not increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and has a favorable impact on lipid levels without affecting blood pressure or weight.

MicroRNA-125a-5p Affects Adipocytes Proliferation, Differentiation and Fatty Acid Composition of Porcine Intramuscular Fat

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content and composition are considered crucial indicators of porcine meat quality. However, the molecular mechanism of porcine IMF development is still mostly unclear. Recently, new evidence suggested that microRNA (miRNAs) play important roles in porcine intramuscular adipogenesis. Previously, microRNA-125a-5p (miR-125a-5p) was identified as an important regulator of adipogenesis. In the present study, we found that the expression of miR-125a-5p is dynamically regulated during porcine intramuscular preadipocytes differentiation and that its expression levels in different porcine muscle tissues were negatively involved with IMF content. To investigate the potential function role of miR-125a-5p in IMF development, porcine intramuscular preadipocytes were collected and transfected with miR-125a-5p mimics, inhibitors, or a negative control (NC), respectively. The results showed that overexpression of miR-125a-5p promoted proliferation and inhibited differentiation of porcine intramuscular preadipocytes while inhibition of miR-125a-5p had the opposite effects. Furthermore, a luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that porcine kruppel like factor 3 (KLF13) is a target gene of miR-125a-5p during porcine intramuscular preadipocytes differentiation. Interestingly, porcine ELOVL fatty acid elongase 6 (ELOVL6), a regulator of fatty acid composition, was also identified as a target gene of miR-125a-5p during porcine intramuscular adipogenesis. Further studies show that miR-125a-5p overexpression reduced total saturated fatty acids (SFA) content and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)/SFA ratios while having no significant impact on polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)/SFA and n-6/n-3 ratios. Taken together, our results identified that miR-125a-5p may be a novel regulator of porcine intramuscular adipogenesis and the fatty acid composition of porcine IMF.

The Effect of Regular Intake of Dry-Cured Ham Rich in Bioactive Peptides on Inflammation, Platelet and Monocyte Activation Markers in Humans

Background and aims: Dietary studies have shown that active biopeptides provide protective health benefits, although the mediating pathways are somewhat uncertain. To throw light on this situation, we studied the effects of consuming Spanish dry-cured ham on platelet function, monocyte activation markers and the inflammatory status of healthy humans with pre-hypertension. Methods: Thirty-eight healthy volunteers with systolic blood pressure of >125 mmHg were enrolled in a two-arm crossover randomized controlled trial. Participants received 80 g/day dry-cured pork ham of >11 months proteolysis or 100 g/day cooked ham (control product) for 4 weeks followed by a 2-week washout before “crossing over” to the other treatment for 4 more weeks. Soluble markers and cytokines were analyzed by ELISA. Platelet function was assessed by measuring P-selectin expression and PAC-1 binding after ADP (adenosine diphosphate) stimulation using whole blood flow cytometry. Monocyte markers of the pathological status (adhesion, inflammatory and scavenging receptors) were also measured by flow cytometry in the three monocyte subsets after the interventional period. Results: The mean differences between dry-cured ham and cooked ham followed by a time period adjustment for plasmatic P-selectin and interleukin 6 proteins slightly failed (p = 0.062 and p = 0.049, respectively), notably increased for MCP-1 levels (p = 0.023) while VCAM-1 was not affected. Platelet function also decreased after ADP stimulation. The expression of adhesion and scavenging markers (ICAM1R, CXCR4 and TLR4) in the three subsets of monocytes was significantly higher (all p < 0.05). Conclusions: The regular consumption of biopeptides contained in the dry-cured ham but absent in cooked ham impaired platelet and monocyte activation and the levels of plasmatic P-selectin, MCP-1 and interleukin 6 in healthy subjects. This study strongly suggests the existence of a mechanism that links dietary biopeptides and beneficial health effects.

Iberian Cured-Ham Consumption Improves Endothelial Function in Healthy Subjects

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have shown that dietary components such as oleic acid or polyphenols exert beneficial effects on endothelium. We aimed to assess the impact of regular consumption of Iberian cured-ham (ICH) on endothelial function.

DESIGN

An open-label, randomized controlled parallel study.

SETTING

Volunteers recruited through advertisements at a hospital in Madrid, Spain.

PARTICIPANTS

102 Caucasian adults (76.8% females) aged 25-55 years, and free from cardiometabolic disease.

INTERVENTION

Participants were randomized to an ICH-enriched ad libitum diet or an ad libitum diet without ICH for 6 weeks. Subjects in ICH group were randomly provided with either acorn- or mixed-fed ICH, and followed up for an additional 6-week period under their usual diet.

MEASUREMENTS

Clinical parameters, biomarkers of endothelial function and oxidative stress, microvascular vasodilatory response to hyperemia and arterial stiffness were measured before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

After 6 weeks, a larger decrease in PAI-1 was observed in subjects consuming ICH compared to the Control group (-6.2±17.7 vs. 0.3±1.4 ng/ml; p=0.020). Similarly, microvascular vasodilatory response to hyperemia showed a significant increase (112.4±391.7 vs. -56.0±327.9%; p=0.007). However, neither oxidative stress, hemodynamic nor clinical parameters differed significantly over the study. Additionally, after stopping ICH consumption, improvements in PAI-1 remained for 6 additional weeks with respect to baseline (p=0.006).

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates, for the first time, that regular consumption of ICH improves endothelial function in healthy adults. Strategies aimed to preserve or improve the endothelial function may have implications in vascular aging beyond the prevention of the atherothrombotic disease.

Nutritional Value and Potential Chemical Food Safety Hazards of Selected Traditional and Conventional Pork Hams from Poland

Consumers no longer look for food characterized only by health safety and proper nutritional value. As a result, an increased interest in traditional and regional food can be observed. The aim of this paper is to analyze the results of a comparative analysis of three types of hams: traditional products registered on the List of Traditional Products of the Polish Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, then products whose names, retail prices, appearance, and manufacturer’s description suggest traditional methods of production, and finally conventional hams. The results show that traditional hams are characterized by the highest nutritional value among the analyzed groups of products. They have the lowest water and a high protein content. In addition, traditional hams are distinguished by a low concentration of sodium chloride and no addition of phosphates. The residues of nitrites and nitrates indicate their moderate use in manufacturing processes.

Characterization of volatile compounds, physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of smoked dry-cured ham

Volatile compounds from smoked dry-cured ham were isolated by using headspace-solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Samples of biceps femoris were also evaluated for sensory physical and chemical characteristics. Eighty seven volatile aroma compounds of smoked dry-cured ham were identified. Chemical groups identified were aldehydes (35.6%), phenols (34.3%), alcohols (13.8%), terpenes (6.4%), aromatic hydrocarbons (2.6%), alkanes (2.2%), ketones (2.2%), esters (1.7%) and acids (0.7%). Except volatile compounds derived from lipolysis and proteolysis the second most abundant constituents were phenols that originate from smoking phase of the production process. The most abundant phenols were: 4-methylphenol, 3-methylphenol, 2-metoxy-4-methylphenol, 2-methylphenol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol and 4-ethyl-2 methoxyphenol. Principal components analysis showed that NaCl and ash content positively correlated with the salty taste while fat content was correlated to marbling. Water content and a_w value were negatively correlated with hardness of dry-cured ham while phenols were positively corelated with smoky aroma. Due to the different volatile composition and pronounced smoky aroma, smoked dry-cured ham can be distinguished from other types of dry-cured hams.

DNA methylation landscape of fat deposits and fatty acid composition in obese and lean pigs

Obese and lean type pig breeds exhibit differences in their fat deposits and fatty acid composition. Here, we compared the effect of genome-wide DNA methylation on fatty acid metabolism between Landrace pigs (LP, leaner) and Rongchang pigs (RP, fatty). We found that LP backfat (LBF) had a higher polyunsaturated fatty acid content but a lower adipocyte volume than RP backfat (RBF). LBF exhibited higher global DNA methylation levels at the genome level than RBF. A total of 483 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were located in promoter regions, mainly affecting olfactory and sensory activity and lipid metabolism. In LBF, the promoters of genes related to ATPase activity had significantly stronger methylation. This fact may suggest lower energy metabolism levels, which may result in less efficient lipid synthesis in LBF. Furthermore, we identified a DMR in the miR-4335 and miR-378 promoters and validated their methylation status by bisulfite sequencing PCR. The hypermethylation of the promoters of miR-4335 and miR-378 in LBF and the resulting silencing of the target genes may result in LBF's low content in saturated fatty acids and fat deposition capacity. This study provides a solid basis for exploring the epigenetic mechanisms affecting fat deposition and fatty acid composition.