Meat standards and grading

Relationships between European carcass evaluation and Meat Standards Australia grading scheme applied to young beef cattle

The European carcass grading scheme (EUROP) places large emphasis on meat yield and therefore on quantitative traits such as carcass conformation and superficial fat coverage. However, it falls short in considering sensory properties and consumer satisfaction. In contrast, the Meat Standards Australia (MSA) grading scheme considers, among others, animals' ossification, marbling, and ultimate pH as primary indicators of beef eating quality. This study aims to characterize MSA carcass grading scheme applied to the Italian beef production system, considering its significant role in European beef market. The study involved 3204 Charolais, Limousin, and crossbred young bulls and heifers slaughtered in a commercial Italian abattoir. Data collection spanned a broad range of variables, including animal characteristics, MSA traits, and EUROP carcass grading traits. Regardless of the sex of the animal, no significant relationship was observed between MSA traits and EUROP carcass grading scores. Factors such as sex, age, and arrival season at the fattening unit significantly affected most of MSA traits. Females had significantly higher marbling score, and lower ossification score and hump height than males. Animals imported in autumn and winter had significantly lower marbling score, but similar ossification score compared to those imported in spring and summer. Older females had the highest marbling scores. While further research is needed to assess whether the MSA grading scheme can be adapted to all different European rearing systems, results of this study are a prelude to the potential benefits that the MSA grading scheme can bring to the European beef industry.

Hydrolysis of Beef Sarcoplasmic Protein by Dry-Aged Beef-Isolated Penicillium oxalicum and Its Associated Metabolic Pathways

Yanbian cattle have a unique meat flavor, and high-grade meat is in short supply. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to improve the added value of Yanbian cattle low-fat meat and provide a theoretical reference for the subsequent development of an excellent starter. Rump meat from Yanbian cattle was dry-aged and then screened for protease-producing fungi. Three protease-producing fungi (Yarrowia hollandica (D4 and D11), Penicillium oxalicum (D5), and Meesziomyces ophidis (D20)) were isolated from 40 d dry-aged beef samples, and their ability to hydrolyze proteins was determined using bovine sarcoplasmic protein extract. SDS-PAGE showed that the ability of Penicillium oxalicum (D5) to degrade proteins was stronger than the other two fungi. In addition, the volatile component content of sarcoplasmic proteins in the D5 group was the highest (45.47%) and comprised the most species (26 types). Metabolic pathway analysis of the fermentation broth showed that phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis was the most closely related metabolic pathway in sarcoplasmic protein fermentation by Penicillium oxalicum (D5). Dry-aged beef-isolated Penicillium oxalicum serves as a potential starter culture for the fermentation of meat products.

The Meat Standards Australia carcass grading site affects assessment of marbling and prediction of meat-eating quality in growing European beef cattle

The lack of consumer feedback on beef eating quality contributes to reduced beef consumption in Europe. The Meat Standards Australia (MSA) grading scheme can assess the palatability of beef carcasses usually graded at the 10th thoracic vertebrae. However, the European beef industry relies on late-maturing breeds usually cut at the 5th vertebrae due to commercial reasons. Data from 55 young bulls and heifers of late-maturing breeds were collected in an Italian slaughterhouse following the MSA guidelines at both carcass grading sites and sides. Intramuscular fat levels were assessed through two scores and used with other variables to feed the MSA model, which predicts the MSA index, the meat-eating quality scores (MQ4) for 5 muscles and for each carcass grading site × side combination. The scores were analyzed using a mixed linear model. A correlation analysis was conducted to predict the variables measured at the 10th site using their correspondent at the 5th carcass grading site. A stepwise regression was conducted to understand the weight of each measured variable on marbling and MQ4 scores measured both at 5th and 10th carcass grading sites. Results showed significantly higher value for the studied traits at the 5th carcass grading site, while carcass side had no significant impact. The equations had high predictive capability and MSA marbling score played a key role in explaining the variability across carcass grading sites. The differences in marbling and MQ4 scores between the carcass grading sites suggest considering this factor if the MSA grading system will be applied to Europe.

Challenges and future perspectives for the European grading of pig carcasses - A quality view

This study sought to evaluate pig carcass grading, describing the existing approaches and definitions, and highlighting the vision for overall quality grading. In particular, the current state of pig carcass grading in the European Union (SEUROP system), its weaknesses, and the challenges to achieve more uniformity and harmonization across member states were described, and a broader understanding of pig carcass value, which includes a vision for the inclusion of meat quality aspects in the grading, was discussed. Finally, the noninvasive methods for the on-line evaluation of pig carcass and meat quality (hereafter referred to as pork quality), and the conditions for their application were discussed. As the way pigs are raised (especially in terms of animal welfare and environmental impact), and more importantly, their perception of pork quality, is becoming increasingly important to consumers, the ideal grading of pigs should comprise pork quality aspects. As a result, a forward-looking "overall quality" approach to pork grading was proposed herein, in which grading systems would be based on the shared vision for pork quality (carcass and meat quality) among stakeholders in the pig industry and driven by consumer expectations with respect to the product. Emerging new technologies provide the technical foundation for such perspective; however, integrating all knowledge and technologies for their practical application to an "overall quality" grading approach is a major challenge. Nonetheless, such approach aligns with the recent vision of Industry 5.0, i.e. a model for the next level of industrialization that is human-centric, resilient, and sustainable.

Aging mechanism for improving the tenderness and taste characteristics of meat

Tenderness and taste characteristics of meat are the key determinants of the meat choices of consumers. This review summarizes the contemporary research on the molecular mechanisms by which postmortem aging of meat improves the tenderness and taste characteristics. The fundamental mechanism by which postmortem aging improves the tenderness of meat involves the operation of the calpain system due to apoptosis, resulting in proteolytic enzyme-induced degradation of cytoskeletal myofibrillar proteins. The improvement of taste characteristics by postmortem aging is mainly explained by the increase in the content of taste-related peptides, free amino acids, and nucleotides produced by increased hydrolysis activity. This review improves our understanding of the published research on tenderness and taste characteristics of meat and provides insights to improve these attributes of meat through postmortem aging.

Adding value to beef portion steaks through measuring individual marbling

The current Meat Standards Australia (MSA) and AUS-MEAT grading system assumes that marbling through the M. longissmus thoracis et lumborum (loin) is represented by the score of the grading site. However, studies have indicated marbling varies within the beef loin, but commercially individual portion steaks are not graded for marbling. Cube rolls from a wide phenotypic marbling range (n = 102) were collected and sliced into 15 mm portion steaks, which were imaged with a Marel vision scanner to obtain objective marbling scores. Additionally, three locations (grading site, middle, cranial) across each cube roll were tested for intramuscular fat percentage (IMF%). The effect of steak location demonstrated marked variation across the length of the cube roll for both vision scanner marbling scores and IMF%. This variation in vision scanner marbling scores, expressed in units of MSA marbling score, equated to 316 MSA units. This work suggests an opportunity for individual portion marbling measurements and segregation of individual portion cut steaks based upon their marbling levels.

Molecular Pathways for Muscle and Adipose Tissue Are Altered between Beef Steers Classed as Choice or Standard

Targets for finished livestock are often determined by expected fat, either subcutaneous or intramuscular. These targets are used frequently to improve eating quality. Lower intramuscular fat, lack of product uniformity, and insufficient tenderness can negatively impact beef acceptability. This study aimed to investigate the differences in gene expression that alter metabolism and intercellular signaling in the muscle and adipose tissue in beef carcasses at different fat endpoints. In this study, longissimus thoracis muscle samples and adipose tissue were collected at harvest, and RNA was extracted and then sequenced using RNAseq. Differential expression was determined using edgeR, and p-values were adjusted using the Benjamini-Hochberg method. A corrected p-value of 0.005 and log₂ (fold change) of >1 were the threshold to identify differential expression. Comparison between intermuscular and subcutaneous fat showed no differences in the genes activated in the two adipose tissue depots, suggesting that subcutaneous fat was an adequate sample. Carcass data allowed the classification of carcasses by USDA quality grades (marbling targets). In comparing muscle from Standard and Choice carcasses, 15 genes were downregulated, and 20 were upregulated. There were 49 downregulated and 113 upregulated genes comparing adipose tissue from Standard and Choice carcasses. These genes are related to the metabolism of fat and energy. This indicates that muscle transcript expression varies less than adipose. In addition, subcutaneous fat can be used to evaluate transcript changes in fat. However, it is unclear whether these fat tissues can be used as surrogates for marbling.

Carcase grading reflects the variation in beef yield - a multivariate method for exploring the relationship between beef yield and carcase traits

Beef carcases in Europe are classified as a proxy for the quantity and ratio of tissues, commonly referred to as yield. It is important that proxies accurately measure yield as they contribute to financial transactions between abattoirs and producers. The main purpose of the study was therefore to examine the ability of EUROP carcase classification to explain the variation in yield. Furthermore, the effect of breed, as a confounder, was also examined. A multivariate definition of yield separating the carcase into six product categories was utilised as a response in a linear regression analysis. The conclusion was that EUROP and carcase features explain the majority of yield variation. Breed has an effect on yield beyond what is explained by carcase features including classification. The magnitude of the breed effects varies with breed and product category.

Effect of slaughter age and postmortem aging time on tenderness and water-holding capacity of yak (Bos grunniens) longissimus thoracis muscle

The present study investigated the effect of slaughter age (2.43 ± 0.20, 4.15 ± 0.19, 6.62 ± 0.18, 10.59 ± 0.74 years) and postmortem aging time (1, 24, and 72 h) on the tenderness and water-holding capacity (WHC) of yak longissimus thoracis muscles to determine the most suitable age for slaughter to ensure product consistency. Under conventional postmortem aging conditions (4 °C), muscles of each age group exhibited the effect of cold shortening. Once the cold shortening occurred, the age effect on thickening muscle fiber and developing cross-links of collagen, considered to intensify the meat toughness, became less important. Owing to greater carcass weight and intramuscular fat, muscles of the older carcass (over 6-year-old) were less influenced by the cold shortening effect during the chilling process and showed lessened sarcomere contraction, delayed formation of drip loss channels, and increased level of myofibril fragmentation index (MFI) and myofiber structural disintegration, resulting in greater tenderness and WHC, especially 6-7 years group. Aging of 72 h structurally disintegrated the collagen cross-linking and integrity of muscle fibers and elevated the MFI, improving the meat tenderness. Therefore, the suitable slaughter age for yak is 6-7 years old and after 72 h aging, improved quality of yak meat can be obtained.

Integrative Analysis of Blood Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Reveals Molecular Regulation of Backfat Thickness in Qinchuan Cattle

A crucial goal of reducing backfat thickness (BFT) is to indirectly improve feed conversion efficiency. This phenotype has been reported in certain papers; however, the molecular mechanism has yet to be fully revealed. Two extreme BFT groups, consisting of four Qinchuan cattle, were chosen for this study. We performed metabolite and transcriptome analyses of blood from cattle with a high BFT (H-BFT with average = 1.19) and from those with a low BFT (L-BFT with average = 0.39). In total, 1106 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 86 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) were identified in the extreme trait. In addition, serum ceramide was strongly correlated with BFT and could be used as a potential biomarker. Moreover, the most notable finding was that the functional genes (SMPD3 and CERS1) and metabolite (sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P)) were filtered out and significantly enriched in the processes related to the sphingolipid metabolism. This investigation contributed to a better understanding of the subcutaneous fat depots in cattle. In general, our results indicated that the sphingolipid metabolism, involving major metabolites (serum ceramide and S1P) and key genes (SMPD3 and CERS1), could regulate BFT through blood circulation.

Bos indicus Carcasses Suspended by the Pelvic Bone Require a Shorter Aging Time to Meet Consumer Expectations Regarding Meat Quality

This study evaluated the effects of hanging the carcass by the Achilles tendon (AS) versus pelvic suspension (PS) on meat quality traits. Bos indicus carcasses of two distinct biological types/sex categories comprised 10 young Brangus heifers and 10 Nellore bulls which were finished in a feedlot. Half-carcasses of each biological type/sex category were randomly hung using Achilles suspension (n = 20, AS) or pelvic suspension (n = 20, PS) for 48 h. At boning, longissimus samples were collected for evaluation by untrained consumers for tenderness, liking of flavor, juiciness and overall acceptability, after aging for 5 or 15 days. Objective samples were also tested for shear force (SF), Minolta meat colour, ultimate pH, cooking loss (CL) and purge loss (PL). There was a positive effect (p < 0.01) of PS on the sensory tenderness of Nellore bulls and Brangus heifers aged for 5 days compared to the AS method. At 15 days of aging, difference in sensory tenderness was observed (p < 0.05) in either group. Additionally, an interaction occurred between the suspension method and the aging of Nellore beef (p < 0.05) on liking of flavor, juiciness and overall acceptance, while the same effects were not observed for Brangus beef (p > 0.05). Nellore carcasses submitted to PS tended (p = 0.06) to produce more tender meat than those submitted to AS (SF = 44.62 ± 6.96 vs. 50.41 ± 8.04 N), and lower CL (p < 0.05) were found (27.7 vs. 30.9%). Carcass-suspension methods did not influence meat color, pH or PL in either group (p > 0.05). The PS contributes to improve the quality of Bos indicus bulls loins; in addition, this method allows a reduction in the aging time from 15 to 5 days, and it can be used to supply meat consumer markets which accept a certain level of eating quality.

- Invited Review - Factors affecting beef quality and nutrigenomics of intramuscular adipose tissue deposition

Beef quality is characterized by marbling (marbling degree and marbling fineness), physiochemical (shear force, meat color, fat color, texture, and maturity), and sensory (tenderness, flavor, juiciness, taste, odor, and appearance) traits. This paper summarizes and addresses beef-quality characteristics and the beef-grading systems in Korea, Japan, the USA, and Australia. This paper summarizes recent research progresses on the genetic and nutritional factors that affect beef quality. Intramuscular (i.m.) adipose tissue deposition or marbling is a major determinant of beef quality. This paper addresses the mechanisms of i.m. adipose tissue deposition focused on adipogenesis and lipogenesis. We also address selected signaling pathways associated with i.m. adipose tissue deposition. Nutrients contribute to the cellular response and phenotypes through gene expression and metabolism. This paper addresses control of gene expression through several nutrients (carbohydrates, fat/fatty acids, vitamins, etc.) for i.m. adipose tissue deposition. Several transcription factors responsible for gene expression via nutrients are addressed. We introduce the concept of genome-based precision feeding in Korean cattle.

Comparison of Pure and Crossbred Japanese Black Steers in Growth Performance and Metabolic Features from Birth to Slaughter at a Spanish Fattening Farm

Simple Summary

Cattle growth performance is a determinant of beef production. Nowadays, customers demand specialized, high-quality beef products produced according to stringent health and welfare standards. Intramuscular fat, or marbling, improves beef quality, and the Japanese Black (Wagyu) is the breed with the highest rates of marbling. Wagyu steers are reared under specific conditions in Japan, which may differ from the conditions in other countries, and these differences may affect animal well-being and, therefore, growth rates and beef quality. The current study shows that purebred Wagyu and crossbred Wagyu-by-Angus steers that were raised at a cow–calf operation and fattening system in Spain with no exercise restriction, high welfare, and a local diet high in olein content showed appropriate growth and fattening rates, health status, and metabolic development. Wagyu crossbred steers did not show substantially faster growth than purebred Wagyu animals, so they may not be as profitable as purebred Japanese Black in this type of production system.

Abstract

Japanese Black (Wagyu) cattle produce high-quality beef. However, whether Wagyu steers can be profitably raised under conditions different than the traditional Japanese ones remains unclear. From 2018 to 2020, we raised 262 Wagyu purebred steers, 103 Wagyu-by-Angus (Wangus) crossbred steers, and 43 Angus-by-European (ACL) crossbred steers on a Spanish farm with high welfare standards and a locally sourced, high-olein diet. Factors and factors’ interactions impacting steer growth were analyzed using generalized linear models. ACL steers grew faster than the other two groups, with Wangus showing intermediate fattening and muscle development. Average daily weight gains (kg/day) were 0.916 for Wagyu, 1.046 for Wangus, and 1.293 for ACL during the weaning to growing period, and 0.628 for Wagyu, 0.64 for Wangus, and 0.802 for ACL during the growing to fattening phase. ACL showed the lowest marbling rates. Wagyu and Wangus usually showed higher cholesterol, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein than ACL. ACL calves may experience greater stress at weaning, as suggested by higher glucose, lactate, and β-hydroxybutyrate than the other groups. The results suggest that Wagyu and Wangus steers showed adequate growth, health, and metabolic development in this type of production system, with Wagyu purebreds probably being more profitable than Wangus crossbreeds.

Fat Deposition and Fat Effects on Meat Quality—A Review

Simple Summary

Animal fat deposition has a major impact on the meat yield from individual carcasses as well the perceived eating quality for consumers. Understanding the impact of livestock production practices on fat deposition and the molecular mechanisms activated will lead to a better understanding of finishing livestock. This enhanced understanding will also lead to the increased efficiency and improved sustainability of practices for livestock production. The impact of fat storage on physiological functions and health are also important. This review brings together both the production practices and the current understanding of molecular processes associated with fat deposition.

Abstract

Growth is frequently described as weight gain over time. Researchers have used this information in equations to predict carcass composition and estimate fat deposition. Diet, species, breed, and gender all influence fat deposition. Alterations in diets result in changes in fat deposition as well as the fatty acid profile of meat. Additionally, the amount and composition of the fat can affect lipid stability and flavor development upon cooking. Fat functions not only as a storage of energy and contributor of flavor compounds, but also participates in signaling that affects many aspects of the physiological functions of the animal. Transcription factors that are upregulated in response to excess energy to be stored are an important avenue of research to improve the understanding of fat deposition and thus, the efficiency of production. Additionally, further study of the inflammation associated with increased fat depots may lead to a better understanding of finishing animals, production efficiency, and overall health.

Consumer Perception of Beef Quality and How to Control, Improve and Predict It? Focus on Eating Quality

Quality refers to the characteristics of products that meet the demands and expectations of the end users. Beef quality is a convergence between product characteristics on one hand and consumers’ experiences and demands on the other. This paper reviews the formation of consumer beef quality perception, the main factors determining beef sensory quality, and how to measure and predict beef eating quality at scientific and industrial levels. Beef quality is of paramount importance to consumers since consumer perception of quality determines the decision to purchase and repeat the purchase. Consumer perception of beef quality undergoes a multi-step process at the time of purchase and consumption in order to achieve an overall value assessment. Beef quality perception is determined by a set of quality attributes, including intrinsic (appearance, safety, technological, sensory and nutritional characteristics, convenience) and extrinsic (price, image, livestock farming systems, commercial strategy, etc.) quality traits. The beef eating qualities that are the most valued by consumers are highly variable and depend mainly on the composition and characteristics of the original muscle and the post-mortem processes involved in the conversion of muscle into meat, the mechanisms of which are summarized in this review. Furthermore, in order to guarantee good quality beef for consumers in advance, the prediction of beef quality by combining different traits in scenarios where the animal, carcass, and muscle cuts can be evaluated is also discussed in the current review.

Leptin gene contributes to beef marbling standard, meat brightness, meat firmness, and beef fat standard of the Kumamoto sub-breed of Japanese Brown cattle

The Kumamoto sub-breed of Japanese Brown cattle has unique characteristics, such as great growth rate, and their contribution as future breeding materials is expected. To develop a DNA marker for their breeding, we investigated the effects of Leptin gene, controlling energy homeostasis, on carcass traits of the Kumamoto sub-breed. Sequence comparison identified five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): four linked synonymous mutations and one nonsynonymous mutation. Statistical analysis revealed that c.239C > T (p.A80V) had significant effects on the traits related with quality grade: beef marbling standard (p = 0.0132), meat brightness (p = 0.0383), and meat firmness (p = 0.0115). The C allele showed favorable effects; these scores of the C/C cattle were significantly higher than those of the C/T cattle. On the other hand, the effect of c.399T > C was observed on meat firmness (p = 0.0172) and beef fat standards (BFS) (p = 0.0129). The C/C cattle showed higher values of these traits than the T/T cattle. Our data suggested that these SNPs in Leptin gene could be used as a DNA marker for breeding of the Kumamoto sub-breed.

Review: On-farm and processing factors affecting bovine carcass and meat quality

This paper reviews the current state of knowledge on beef carcass and meat quality, with particular emphasis on on-farm and processing factors associated with its high and inconsistent variability. The diversity of livestock systems comes from the diversity of breeds (dairy or beef), ages and gender (bulls, steers, heifers, cull cows) used to produce either mainly beef or beef and milk. In addition, there are factors linked to farming practices (including diet, especially grazing) which significantly influence the sensory, nutritional, technological and extrinsic (such as image) quality attributes of meat. These can become factors of positive differentiation when controlled by the application and certification of technical specifications. Finally, preslaughter (such as stress), slaughter (such as the chilling and hanging method of carcasses) and postslaughter (such as ageing, packaging and cooking) conditions have a strong influence on the microbiological, sensory, technological and image quality attributes of beef. In this review, potential synergisms or antagonisms between the different quality attributes are highlighted. For example, finishing cattle on grass, compared to indoor fattening on a high concentrate diet, has the advantage of producing leaner meat with a higher proportion of omega-3 fatty acids while exhibiting superior oxidative stability, but with the consequence of a darker meat colour and lower productivity, as well as higher seasonality and land surface requirements. Moreover, the control of on-farm factors is often guided by productivity (growth rate, feed conversion ratio) and carcass quality attributes (weight, conformation and fatness). Genetic selection has often been oriented in this direction, without taking other quality attributes into account. Finally, the interactions between all these factors (and especially between on-farm and slaughter or processing factors) are not considered in the quality grading schemes in European countries. This means that positive efforts at farm level may be mitigated or even eliminated by poor slaughtering or processing conditions. All these considerations explain why between-animal variability in quality can be high, even when animals come from the same farming system. The ability to predict the sensory and nutritional properties of meat according to production factors has become a major objective of the supply chain.

Review: Quality of animal-source foods

This article critically reviews the current state of knowledge on the quality of animal-source foods according to animal production and food processing conditions, including consumer expectations-behaviours and the effects of consumption of animal-source foods on human health. Quality has been defined through seven core attributes: safety, commercial, sensory, nutritional, technological, convenience, and image. Image covers ethical, cultural and environmental dimensions associated with the origin of the food and the way it is produced and processed. This framework enabled to highlight the priorities given to the different quality attributes. It also helped to identify potential antagonisms and synergies among quality attributes, between production and processing stages, and among stakeholders. Primacy is essentially given to commercial quality attributes, especially for standard commodity animal-source foods. This primacy has strongly influenced genetic selection and farming practices in all livestock commodity chains and enabled substantial quantitative gains, although at the expense of other quality traits. Focal issues are the destructuration of chicken muscle that compromises sensory, nutritional and image quality attributes, and the fate of males in the egg and dairy sectors, which have heavily specialised their animals. Quality can be gained but can also be lost throughout the farm-to-fork continuum. Our review highlights critical factors and periods throughout animal production and food processing routes, such as on-farm practices, notably animal feeding, preslaughter and slaughter phases, food processing techniques, and food formulation. It also reveals on-farm and processing factors that create antagonisms among quality attributes, such as the castration of male pigs, the substitution of marine-source feed by plant-based feed in fish, and the use of sodium nitrite in meat processing. These antagonisms require scientific data to identify trade-offs among quality attributes and/or solutions to help overcome these tensions. However, there are also food products that value synergies between quality attributes and between production and processing phases, particularly Geographical Indications, such as for cheese and dry-cured ham. Human epidemiological studies have found associations between consumption of animal-source foods and increased or decreased risk for chronic non-communicable diseases. These associations have informed public health recommendations. However, they have not yet considered animal production and food processing conditions. A concerted and collaborative effort is needed from scientists working in animal science, food process engineering, consumer science, human nutrition and epidemiology in order to address this research gap. Avenues for research and main options for policy action are discussed.

Predicting carcass cut yields in cattle from digital images using artificial intelligence

Deep Learning (DL) has proven to be a successful tool for many image classification problems but has yet to be applied to carcass images. The aim of this study was to train DL models to predict carcass cut yields and compare predictions to more standard machine learning (ML) methods. Three approaches were undertaken to predict the grouped carcass cut yields of Grilling cuts and Roasting cuts from a large dataset of 54,598 and 69,246 animals respectively. The approaches taken were (1) animal phenotypic data used as features for a range of ML algorithms, (2) carcass images used to train Convolutional Neural Networks, and (3) carcass dimensions measured directly from the carcass images, combined with the associated phenotypic data and used as feature data for ML algorithms. Results showed that DL models can be trained to predict carcass cuts yields but an approach that uses carcass dimensions in ML algorithms performs slightly better in absolute terms.

Animal board invited review - Beef for future: technologies for a sustainable and profitable beef industry

The global consumption, notably in developing countries, and production of beef are increasing continuously, and this requires the industry to improve performance and to reduce the environmental impact of the production chain. Since the improvement in efficiency and the highest impacts occur at farm level, it is appropriate to focus on the profitability and environmental sustainability of these enterprises. In many areas of the world, beef production is economically and socially relevant because it accounts for a significant portion of the agricultural production and represents a vital economic activity in mountain and hill districts of many regions, where few alternatives for other agricultural production exist. Due to the important role in the agricultural and food economy worldwide, the future of the beef industry is linked to the reduction of ecological impacts, mainly adopting the agroecological mitigation practices, and the simultaneous improvement of production performances and of product quality. This review analyses the technical and managerial solutions currently available to increase the efficiency of the beef industry and, at the same time, to reduce its environmental impacts in response to the growing concerns and awareness of citizens and consumers.

Hierarchical clustering as a tool to develop a classification scheme for rabbit meat quality

<p>This study aimed to characterise the quality of meat from commercially-raised rabbits. Animals came from five different producers and were  laughtered in three different plants under provincial or federal inspection jurisdiction. Animal behaviour evaluated by scan sampling prior to feed withdrawal (FW) and transport, as well as blood lactate concentration at exsanguination, did not raise concerns with respect to stress. Stomach pH was higher (<em>P</em>=0.047) when the FW time was short (≤13.5 h), at a mean value of 2.23. All pH values measured 1 h post-mortem from the Biceps femoris (BF) and almost all (97.6%) from the Longissimus lumborum (LL) were higher than 6. Values for ultimate pH measured 24 h postmortem(pH_u) ranged from 5.80 to 6.83 and from 5.70 to 6.70 for BF and LL muscles, respectively. The maximum meat drip loss recorded was 2.6%, while cooking loss reached 30%. Meat lightness (L*) and colour intensity (C*) for the long FW times (≥23 h) were no different from those with short and intermediate (15.5 to 17.3 h) FW times. However, these colour parameters were higher for the short FW time class compared to the intermediate FW time class (<em>P</em>&lt;0.02). A hierarchical cluster analysis based on pH_u, cooking loss and lightness (L*) from 200 rabbit loins was performed. Of the four clusters created, clusters 1 and 2 had the best and second-best meat quality, respectively. Clusters 3 and 4 had the lowest meat quality and presented DFD-like (dark, firm and dry) characteristics. Meat did not exhibit PSE-like (pale, soft, exudative) characteristics, even for the slaughter lot with the minimum mean pH_u. Of the eight slaughter lots evaluated, more than 50% of the meat from three of them fell into clusters 3 and 4; all three were in the intermediate FW time class. Overall, the quality of rabbit meat analysed was acceptable for commercial use, but rather variable. This suggests that there are factors within the value chain that are not yet fully controlled and require further investigation.</p>

Prediction of carcass composition and meat and fat quality using sensing technologies: A review

Consumer demand for high-quality healthy food is increasing, &nbsp;thus meat processors require the means toassess these rapidly, accurately, and inexpensively. Traditional methods forquality assessments are time-consuming, expensive, invasive, and have potentialto negatively impact the environment. Consequently, emphasis has been put onfinding non-destructive, fast, and accurate technologies for productcomposition and quality evaluation. Research in this area is advancing rapidlythrough recent developments in the areas of portability, accuracy, and machinelearning. The present review, therefore, critically evaluates and summarizes developmentsof popular non-invasive technologies (i.e., from imaging to spectroscopicsensing technologies) for estimating beef, pork, and lamb composition andquality, which will hopefully assist in the implementation of thesetechnologies for rapid evaluation/real-timegrading of livestock products in the nearfuture.

Sensory and Physical Characteristics of M. biceps femoris from Older Cows Using Ginger Powder (Zingibain) and Sous Vide Cooking

This study aimed to evaluate the sensory and physical characteristics of zingibain-injected meat combined with sous vide cooking. M. biceps femoris (BF; n = 12) acquired from 6-7 year old Angus cows were cooked using the sous vide method at 65 °C, for 8 h or 12 h, either with ginger powder (GP) injected in a 2 g/L solution in water (treatment) or un-injected (control). The sensory attributes included flavour, juiciness, tenderness, and physicochemical characteristics were Warner-Bratzler shear (WBSF), hardness, total water content (TWC), cooking loss (CL) and collagen content. A significant improvement in tenderness with injection treatment and cooking time was observed, as evaluated through trained sensory panellists, and reduced WBSF and hardness (p < 0.05 for all). The flavour of the meat was not affected by injection treatment or cooking time (p > 0.05), but juiciness and TWC were reduced with longer cooking times (p < 0.01 for both). Soluble collagen increased with injection treatment and cooking time (both p < 0.05). Moderate to high correlations were found between sensory and physical measurements for tenderness and juiciness. The longer cooking time (12 h) with GP injection treatment caused over tenderization of the meat. The soft texture associated with over-tenderization may be suitable for some specialised consumer markets, for instance, the elderly population with chewing difficulties. Improving the eating quality of low-quality meat from old animals through sous vide cooking and the use of ginger proteases may increase the acceptability of lower value beef, potentially enhancing the commercial value of carcasses typically produced in the beef industry.

Color and Marbling as Predictors of Meat Quality Perception of Argentinian Consumers

In Argentina, color and intramuscular fat are the main attributes of raw beef quality; however, it is necessary to clarify how consumers use them, in order to establish different marketing strategies. Consumer preferences are affected by multiple factors. Thus, the objective of the present study was to identify the Argentinian consumer's choice behavior regarding beef color and fat content. An online survey was carried out in Argentina. It inquired about socio-demographic characteristics, purchase and consumption habits and beliefs, showing pictures related to color, marbling and the amount of fat. Choice behavior was evaluated by asking why consumers chose a particular picture out of the ones shown. Several Kruskal-Wallis tests evaluated the different hypotheses. Three different decision trees using the CHAID analysis method were created. Multifactorial analysis was carried out for clustering consumers. Regarding consumer beliefs, 90% of the respondents agreed with the sentence, "The two main characteristics defining beef quality at purchase time are meat color and marbling". Socio-demographic characteristics affected purchase habits and beliefs; they also affected perceptions about meat color and marbling. It was possible to build three consumer groups for future marketing strategies: "hedonic" focused on a pleasing sensory experience, "appearance" prioritized the visual aspects, and the "health-conscious" consumers were interested in their healthy nutrition.

Multivariate Relationships among Carcass Traits and Proximate Composition, Lipid Profile, and Mineral Content of Longissimus lumborum of Grass-Fed Male Cattle Produced under Tropical Conditions

Hierarchical cluster (HCA) and canonical correlation (CCA) analyses were employed to explore the multivariate relationships among chemical components (proximate, mineral and lipidic components) of lean beef longissimus dorsii lumborum (LDL) and selected carcass traits of cattle fattened on pasture under tropical conditions (bulls, n = 60; steers, n = 60; from 2.5 to 4.0 years of age, estimated by dentition). The variables backfat thickness (BFT), Ca, Mn, Cu, C14:0, C15:0, and C20:0 showed the highest coefficients of variation. Three clusters were defined by the HCA. Out of all carcass traits, only BFT differed significantly (p < 0.001) among clusters. Clusters significantly (p < 0.001) differed for total lipids (TLIPIDS), moisture, dry matter (DM), fatty acid composition, cholesterol content, and mineral composition (except for Fe). The variables that define the canonical variate “CARCASS” were BFT and degree of marbling (MARBLING). TLIPIDS was the main variable for the “PROXIMATE” canonical variate, while C16:0 and C18:1c had the most relevant contribution to the “LIPIDS” canonical variate. BFT and MARBLING were highly cross-correlated with TLIPIDS which, in turn, was significantly affected by the IM lipid content. Carcass traits were poorly correlated with mineral content. These findings allow for the possibility to develop selection criteria based on BFT and/or marbling to sort carcasses, from grass-fed cattle fattened under tropical conditions, with differing nutritional values. Further analyses are needed to study the effects of sex condition on the associations among carcass traits and lipidic components.

Recent developments in the objective measurement of carcass and meat quality for industrial application

This paper summarises the contents of this Special Edition. The papers cover a range of advanced technologies for the objective measurement of carcass characteristics that influence the yield and potential eating quality of beef and lamb carcasses. All the research has been carried out in Australia and New Zealand and has been centrally funded with collaboration between various groups. This Special Edition is timely since the meat industry is coming under pressure on environmental grounds in addition to health warnings about excessive meat consumption. In this respect it is encouraging that so many of the papers relate to eating quality. The emphasis on objective methods is also important as moving away from traditional subjective grading will improve accuracy and consistency and thereby increase efficiency. Some differences in the approach taken in other parts of the world are discussed.

Pricing and Ordering Strategies for Fresh Food Based on Quality Grading

Fresh food quality grading is the basis of fresh food marketization. On the one hand, it can effectively improve the market efficiency of fresh food and improve the earnings of retailers. On the other hand, it can alleviate the incompleteness of market information and help consumers better identify the quality characteristics of fresh food. To address the issue of quality grading for fresh food, this study constructs a retailer profit model for selling fresh food with two quality grades. Considering the quality level distribution of fresh food and based on the quality selection model, the retailer’s optimal grading, pricing, and ordering of fresh food are studied. Through numerical simulation and sensitivity analysis, some conclusions with managerial implications are drawn. We find that the retailer has the optimal quality grading strategy for fresh food, which is influenced by the minimum quality level and the unit cost of fresh food. Raising the quality standard at the lowest level or reducing the unit cost can help the retailer increase the profits.

The quality and mineral composition of the longissimus lumborum and semimembranosus muscles from lambs fed perennial or annual wheat forage with or without lucerne

This study compared the effect of a novel perennial wheat forage and a conventional annual wheat forage, fed to lambs with or without lucerne, on the quality and mineral profile of the longissimus lumborum and semimembranosus muscles. This involved 48 Poll Dorset × Merino ewe lambs, 12 per treatment, managed for 28 days within individual pens. Consumer sensory panel scores showed 'good eating quality' for all samples irrespective of diet, a conclusion supported by the shear force, cooking loss, particle size, and intramuscular fat results. Drip loss was affected by a significant interaction between diet and muscle. The ultimate pH of meat from lambs fed annual wheat was highest. Comparable colour stability and purge results suggested that diet did not impact on lamb retail-potential. Sodium, sulphur and zinc concentrations were higher in the meat from lambs fed annual wheat, compared to perennial wheat. Overall, these outcomes support the use of perennial wheat as a forage for lamb production.

Consumers' perception and purchase behaviour of meat in China

China has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and this has accounted for an increase in meat consumption. Therefore, it is important to understand the underlying factors of consumers' perception and purchasing behaviour of lamb meat in China. This study adopts a conceptual framework, which includes expectations, perception, and purchase behaviour of red meat among Chinese consumers. A total of 31 questions were included in a self-administered questionnaire through an online platform, with 601 meat consumers who participated in this study. Results showed that Australian and New Zealand meat were perceived as having positive quality characteristics (e.g. natural, reliable) followed by Chinese local meat. Partial Least Squares Path Modelling (PLS-PM) further identified that the key drivers that influenced meat purchase were seasonality, purchase location, and consumer experience particularly in cooking methods used. Purchase point for Chinese consumers were equally weighed with butchers, supermarket, and traditional market as being the most common purchase locations. Unexpectedly, Chinese consumers were found to consume less meat in summer and more during winter. Purchase drivers included meat safety certification and the perceived health benefits of meat.

Effect of pelvic suspension and post-mortem ageing on the quality of three muscles from Holstein Friesian bulls and steers

BACKGROUND

The use of bulls rather than steers from the dairy herd offers a more profitable and environmentally friendly option; however, the beef eating quality from bulls is an issue of concern. This study assessed the effect of two tenderization techniques - pelvic suspension and ageing - on three different muscles of Holstein Friesian males from two different production systems.

RESULTS

The results indicate that a production system based on steers slaughtered at 24 months (S24) produced beef with better eating quality than from bulls slaughtered at 19 months (B19) when tenderization techniques were not applied. Instrumental texture of longissimus thoracis and gluteus medius muscles was improved with ageing and/or pelvic suspension, with both tenderization techniques exerting greater impact on B19 meat. No differences were found in semitendinosus muscle due to suspension method, whereas ageing for longer than 14 days decreased its instrumental tenderness. Sensory results indicate that, after 14 days of ageing, panellists still preferred meat from S24, and they could differentiate between pelvic and traditional suspension.

CONCLUSION

Tenderization methodologies should be optimized for each production system and muscle; however, both panel and instrumental texture results indicate that eating quality of beef from either production systems is acceptable after 14 days of ageing, or even earlier if the suspension method is applied. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Development and validation of the Canadian retail cut beef yield grades

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) system has five retail cut yield (RCY) classes, whereas the former Canadian system had three total lean yield (TLY) classes. A total of 720 beef carcasses were used to develop a modified grade ruler, harmonizing the Canadian grades into five classes. Beef carcasses (n = 750) from three Canadian federally inspected facilities were graded using both USDA and Canadian (harmonized ruler) systems for external validation. Agreement between the USDA-RCY and the Canadian TLY was high (R2 = 0.80). The validation between the harmonized ruler and the USDA-RCY showed a standard deviation of the difference of 1.32 and a coefficient of concordance of 0.83.

Yield measurement is valuable for pricing beef carcasses

Context The most common way of pricing beef carcasses is through a price grid. Most processors make greater profit from higher-quality carcasses, which are those with higher meat yield and eating quality. Aims The aim of this study was to calculate the value of diverse carcasses and compare pricing mechanisms on their ability to discriminate variation in meat yield and predicted eating quality. Methods Hereford cross steer carcasses (153) were boned out to record saleable meat and yield. Six methods were used to calculate carcass price (AU$/kg). All were adjusted to the same average carcass value to allow comparisons, assuming that the overall payment does not change, but comparing the effect of having greater premiums and discounts. The six prices were based on a commercial grid, grid plus eating quality premium, yield of saleable meat only (constant price for all saleable meat), yield with eating quality premium, then the yield prices with optimum (quadratic) weight and fatness penalties based on grid optimums. Key results Measurements of meat quality (eye muscle area and marble score) or saleable meat yield accounted for no variation in the grid price. However, measurement of yield accounted for substantial variation in prices calculated from yield and eating quality. Conclusions The current grids do not encourage high-quality meat production and, assuming that yield and eating quality are important to processors, an actual measurement of yield is crucial to guide processing decisions (e.g. cutting plans) to maximise carcass value and feed market signals back to beef producers. Implications Improved measurement of meat yield is required if carcass prices are to reflect carcass quality or the potential value captured.

Comparison of smartphone and lab-grade NIR spectrometers to measure chemical composition of lamb and beef

Context Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) has been extensively investigated for non-destructive and rapid determination of pH and chemical composition of meat including water, crude protein, intramuscular fat (IMF) and stable isotopes. Smaller, cheaper NIRS sensors that connect to a smartphone could enhance the accessibility and uptake of this technology by consumers. However, the limited wavelength range of these sensors could restrict the accuracy of predictions compared with benchtop laboratory NIRS models. Aims To compare the precision and accuracy metrics of predicting pH, water, crude protein and IMF of three sample presentations and two sensors. Methods Fresh intact (FI) store-bought beef and lamb steak samples (n = 43) were ground and freeze-dried (FD), and then oven-dried to create freeze-dried oven-dried (FDOD) samples. All three forms of sample presentation (FI, FD, FDOD) were scanned using the smartphone and benchtop NIRS sensors. Key results The IMF was the best predicted trait in FD and FDOD forms by the smartphone NIRS (R2 &gt;0.75; RPD &gt;1.40) with limited differences between the two sensors. However, predictions on FI meat were poorer for all traits regardless of the NIRS scanner used (R2 ≤ 0.67; RPD ≤ 1.58) and not suitable for use in research or industry. Conclusion The smartphone NIRS sensor showed accuracy and precision comparable to benchtop NIRS to predict meat composition. However, these preliminary results found that neither of the two sensors reliably predicted quality attributes for industry or consumer applications. Implications Miniaturised NIRS sensors connected to smartphones could provide a practical solution to measure some meat quality attributes such as IMF, but the accuracy depends on sample presentation.

Evaluation of Greek Cattle Carcass Characteristics (Carcass Weight and Age of Slaughter) Based on SEUROP Classification System

In Greece, all cattle carcasses produced from a variety of breed types are classified according to the SEUROP system. The objective of this study was to evaluate Greek carcass characteristics such as carcass weight and age of slaughter based on SEUROP classification system (muscle conformation and fat deposit classes) and to describe the effect of main factors such as breed, gender, year of slaughter, farm's geographical region and month of slaughter on these carcass parameters. It is the first study that evaluates local breeds, revealing the wide diversity of the Greek cattle breeding conditions. The analyzed records consisted of 323,046 carcasses from 2011 to 2017. All the examined factors significantly affected the mean carcass weight (298.9 ± 0.2 kg) and the mean slaughter age (559.1 ± 0.3 days). Carcasses from beef meat breeds had on average higher mean carcass weight while the local breeds had lower. The mean slaughter age and carcass weight were higher in winter than in summer. The local and the dairy breeds were classified in similar muscle conformation classes. Finally, Greek cattle carcasses from almost all regions were satisfactory for their quality carcass traits with good muscle conformation (R, O and U class) and low-fat deposit (class 1 to 3).

Association between visual marbling score and chemical intramuscular fat with camera marbling percentage in Australian beef carcasses

This study assessed the precision and accuracy in the prediction of chemical intramuscular fat (IMF%), Meat Standards Australia (MSA) marbling score and AUS-MEAT eye-muscle area (EMA) using Meat Imaging Japan (MIJ) prototype camera systems. Eleven carcass datasets from the Beef Information Nucleus (BIN) project were compiled with carcass grading, IMF% and camera data. Camera prediction of IMF%, MSA marbling score and EMA was assessed using a leave-one-out cross validation method. There was an association between MIJ mirror and MIJ-30 camera traits and IMF%, MSA marbling score and EMA. However, for both prototypes precision varied for IMF% (R² = 0.4-0.5, RMSECV = 1.5-1.6%), MSA marbling (R² = 0.3-0.5, RMSECV = 57.5-59.3) and EMA (R² = 0.7-0.6, RMSECV = 4.1-5.8 cm²). Accuracy also fluctuated with average bias values of 1.7-1.8%, 45.8-40.0 units and 3.8-4.1 cm² for IMF%, MSA marbling score and EMA respectively. Key differences between carcass and camera traits and processing factors affecting the grading site are likely to have contributed to this variation.

Whole Genome Sequence Data Provides Novel Insights Into the Genetic Architecture of Meat Quality Traits in Beef

Tenderness is a major quality attribute for fresh beef steaks in the United States, and meat quality traits in general are suitable candidates for genomic research. The objectives of the present analysis were to (1) perform genome-wide association (GWA) analysis for marbling, Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF), tenderness, and connective tissue using whole-genome data in an Angus population, (2) identify enriched pathways in each GWA analysis; (3) construct a protein-protein interaction network using the associated genes and (4) perform a μ-calpain proteolysis assessment for associated structural proteins. An Angus-sired population of 2,285 individuals was assessed. Animals were transported to a commercial packing plant and harvested at an average age of 457 ± 46 days. After 48 h postmortem, marbling was recorded by graders' visual appraisal. Two 2.54-cm steaks were sampled from each muscle for recording of WBSF, and tenderness, and connective tissue by a sensory panel. The relevance of additive effects on marbling, WBSF, tenderness, and connective tissue was evaluated on a genome-wide scale using a two-step mixed model-based approach in single-trait analysis. A tissue-restricted gene enrichment was performed for each GWA where all polymorphisms with an association p-value lower than 1 × 10-3 were included. The genes identified as associated were included in a protein-protein interaction network and a candidate structural protein assessment of proteolysis analyses. A total of 1,867, 3,181, 3,926, and 3,678 polymorphisms were significantly associated with marbling, WBSF, tenderness, and connective tissue, respectively. The associate region on BTA29 (36,432,655-44,313,046 bp) harbors 13 highly significant markers for meat quality traits. Enrichment for the GO term GO:0005634 (Nucleus), which includes transcription factors, was evident. The final protein-protein network included 431 interations between 349 genes. The 42 most important genes based on significance that encode structural proteins were included in a proteolysis analysis, and 81% of these proteins were potential μ-Calpain substrates. Overall, this comprehensive study unraveled genetic variants, genes and mechanisms of action responsible for the variation in meat quality traits. Our findings can provide opportunities for improving meat quality in beef cattle via marker-assisted selection.

Impact of Nutritional Information on Consumers' Willingness to Pay for Meat Products in Traditional Wet Markets of Taiwan

The application of nutritional labels provides information regarding the health and nutritional value of products and allows consumers to engage in healthier dietary habits. However, not all types of retail markets provide full nutrition information for meat products. Since there is no nutritional information for fresh meat products in traditional wet markets, this study aimed to investigate consumer purchasing intention and willingness to pay (WTP) for this nutritional information in Taiwanese traditional wet markets. A total of 1420 valid respondents were examined using the random utility theory to explain consumer purchasing intention and WTP for nutritional information. Results showed that most (over 60%) consumers in traditional wet markets have positive purchasing intent for meat products with the nutrition information provided. Furthermore, the nutrition information in traditional wet markets significantly boosts consumers’ purchasing intention and WTP when consumers have a personal health awareness on meat, have proficient experience in buying meat, and continuously receive information from health-related media. Specifically, consumers’ shopping background and their level of health consciousness would be the key factors that would alter their WTP, if provided nutritional claims.

Research in Beef Tenderness and Palatability in the Era of Big Data

For decades, research has focused on predicting beef palatability using muscle biochemical traits, and various biomarkers. In these approaches, a precise definition of the variable to predict (tenderness assessed by panelists, untrained consumers, or shear force), and repeatability of the measurements are crucial for creating significant data resources for the derivation of robust predictive models, and rigorous validation testing. This “big data” approach also requires careful definition of traits and transparent principles for data sharing and management. As in other fields, meat science researchers should improve the Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reuse of data (known as the FAIR principles). Furthermore, with the rapid evolution of new measurement technologies, the traits that they measure must be consistently described, enhancing our ability to integrate these new measurements into existing description systems. For beef, strategic choices have been made in order to consider real consumers’ expectations, not well estimated correctly by lab approaches. This strategy has been successfully developed in Australia, which set up the “Meat Standards Australia” grading scheme, now partly adopted by the beef industry. The ambitions of the International Meat Research 3G Foundation is to develop beef ontology, to set up an international database with a huge number of consumers’ scores related to beef palatability and collected according to standard protocols. The foundation also aims to support the beef industry by offering an international predictive model of beef palatability, flexible enough to take into account any local livestock characteristics or regional consumer specificity. This approach is supported by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), which is promoting development of regulations and norms, technical cooperation and exchange of best expertise and practices. This will substantially improve the transparency of data flow and price signaling between all participants of the value chain, from beef producers through to consumers at retail.

European conformation and fat scores of bovine carcasses are not good indicators of marbling

Marbling is one of the primary carcass attributes utilized in most beef grading systems for eating quality evaluation. In Europe, the current beef grading system is the EUROP grid, which is focused on carcass commercial value and production yield rather than eating quality estimation. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between marbling and the most common scores for carcass classification in Europe. If there are strong associations between marbling and European classification scores, marbling score may be estimated from the carcass characteristics. However, this study indicated that European classification scores explain only a slight proportion of the variance in marbling score (32%, 46%, 34% and 21% for the entire cattle group, young bulls, females and steers, respectively). Therefore, whereas the EUROP grid is well adapted to estimate yield, it does not reflect marbling at all. The European beef industry should take into account additional indicators related to beef palatability to assist the determination of the commercial value of carcasses.

Various Statistical Approaches to Assess and Predict Carcass and Meat Quality Traits

The beef industry is organized around different stakeholders, each with their own expectations, sometimes antagonistic. This article first outlines these differing perspectives. Then, various optimization models that might integrate all these expectations are described. The final goal is to define practices that could increase value for animal production, carcasses and meat whilst simultaneously meeting the main expectations of the beef industry. Different models previously developed worldwide are proposed here. Two new computational methodologies that allow the simultaneous selection of the best regression models and the most interesting covariates to predict carcass and/or meat quality are developed. Then, a method of variable clustering is explained that is accurate in evaluating the interrelationships between different parameters of interest. Finally, some principles for the management of quality trade-offs are presented and the Meat Standards Australia model is discussed. The "Pareto front" is an interesting approach to deal jointly with the different sets of expectations and to propose a method that could optimize all expectations together.

Attitudinal Determinants of Beef Consumption in Venezuela: A Retrospective Survey

Consumer surveys were conducted in the Western, Central, and Eastern regions of Venezuela to determine buying expectations, motivations, needs, perceptions, and preferences of beef consumers, and their acceptance of domestic (and foreign) beef, as affected by different intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Data (n = 693) were gathered by face-to-face interviews on the way out of fresh markets, butcher stores, supermarkets, and, in some cases, at home by using a 45-question structured questionnaire. Responses were subjected to factorial analysis of correspondence (FA) and hierarchical cluster analysis. From the FA, the first two factors explain 74% of the common variance. Factor 1 comprises intrinsic attributes such as color, smell, tenderness, flavor, juiciness, and freshness; while Factor 2 contains extrinsic attributes, mostly related to the origin. The FA profiling data showed that it is possible to concentrate on the traits that consumers usually use as a criterion to perceive beef quality, and to purchase beef. Using cluster analysis, four groups of consumers were mainly distinguished by region, intrinsic attributes, and credence attributes related to production system, aging, traceability, and hygiene. Results from this study will be helpful in designing strategies for recovering and enhancing the future, domestic beef demand.