The effect of skatole and androstenone on consumer response towards streaky bacon and pork belly roll

Marinade injection of pork as a possible technological strategy to reduce boar taint: Response and attitude of the consumer

Sensory evaluation by consumers allows validation of a solution for the food industry to overcome boar taint and market entire male pork with high levels of boar taint considered "unfit for human consumption". One possible technological strategy for improvement is the injection marination of entire male pork to help minimise the impact of boar taint and improve its marketability. The responses of 120 regular pork consumers, to entire males with high levels of boar taint and castrated pork, both injection-marinated, were evaluated. The results showed a similar response between entire and castrated male pork regardless of sex, and the detection of unpleasant odours and flavours (as farm/animal), thus offering a new alternative to the pork sector to mask the boar taint and revalue this pork. However, it was observed that consumer information on castration and animal welfare of entire male pork is scarce, and it is important to increase their knowledge so that they can place a value on this technological strategy with entire male pork and thus increase their purchase intention.

Enhanced HPLC Method for Boar Taint Quantification

Boar taint is an unpleasant odour found in the carcasses of entire male pigs, resulting from androstenone and skatole accumulation during pubertal development, and impacting pork quality. This study proposes the validation of an adapted chromatographic method for quantifying skatole and androstenone in the pigs' liquid fat using fluorescence detection. A good chromatographic separation was achieved, with skatole (SKA) and androstenone (AND) elution at 4.4 and 9.9 min., respectively. An external calibration method was applied, with calibration curves correlation coefficient of 0.9999 for both analytes. Detection limit values were 1.53 and 16.02 ng/g for SKA and AND, respectively. SKA recovery was 99.72±2.34 % (2.34 % RSD) and 102.84±1.62 % (1.57 % RSD) for AND. Results showed good precision values (repeatability <2.46 % RSD for SKA, <6.85 % RSD for AND; intermediate precision <2.87 % RSD for SKA, <6.98 % RSD for AND). The method's robustness was tested and the values were within the reference ranges. The validation results proved that the adaptation of an existing method resulted in good assessments of robustness, reliability and accuracy.

The Effect of the Boar Taint Masking Strategy (Adding Dried Origanum vulgare or Allium sativum) on Sensory Characteristics

With increasing efforts to ban surgical castration, it is important to find ways to mask the level of boar taint in meat. The aim of this study was to test the possibility of masking boar taint or skatole levels by adding dried Origanum vulgare or Allium sativum and to evaluate consumer sensory preferences towards the skatole concentration in different carcass parts (longissimus lumborum; semimembranosus; neck chop and subcutaneous fat) and the masking strategy (addition of Allium sativum or Origanum vulgare). In the first experiment, the effect of the masking strategy was evaluated at three different skatole concentrations (0.069, 0.269 and 0.463 µg/g). The results showed that the samples with low and medium skatole levels were significantly different between the control group and the groups treated with Origanum vulgare or Allium sativum. In both cases, the addition of Allium sativum and Origanum vulgare had a positive effect on the parameters of abnormal odour and pleasantness of odour (p < 0.05). According to the results of the second experiment, meat samples from leaner parts, such as the neck chop semimembranosus and longissimus lumborum, not treated with Allium sativum and Origanum vulgare for masking, were significantly (p < 0.05) worse in terms of the occurrence of boar taint or abnormal odour than the masked samples. No significant differences were found between the two masking methods.

Consumer perception of entire male pork coated with spiced edible films as a new product to mask boar taint

Pork production has undergone a shift towards the rearing of entire male pigs, however, its meat might carry with the presence of boar taint and it would be considered "unfit for human consumption". To offer a new alternative to the pork sector tailored to the needs of consumers, a viable option would be the use of edible spiced gelatin films to help minimize boar taint and improve its marketability. The responses of 120 regular meat consumers to entire pork with high levels of boar taint and castrated pork free of boar taint, both coated with spiced gelatin films were evaluated. They showed a similar response between entire and castrated male pork coated with spiced films, regardless of whether consumers usually detected unpleasant odours (as farm/animal) when consuming pork or not. Therefore, the new spiced films offer a new range of products to consumers as they contribute to the improvement of the sensory quality of entire male pork, especially among consumers who tend to buy new products.

Consumer evaluation of meat quality from barrows, immunocastrates and boars in six countries

The practice of surgical castration of piglets and its alternatives is still under debate. Production of boars may impair meat quality due to boar taint and reduced tenderness compared to meat from surgically castrated male pigs, while immunocastration reduces boar taint and may improve meat quality but seems to be less accepted by the pig chain. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the consumer's sensory appreciation of meat from barrows (BAs), immunocastrates (ICs) and boars (BOs) in six European countries, taking into account the selection of tainted carcass and consumers' appreciation of boar taint. Loin chops of 30 BAs, 30 ICs and 30 BOs were evaluated by 752 consumers in six countries: Belgium, Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Spain. Consumers rated odour, flavour, tenderness, juiciness, overall liking and willingness to buy and sensitivity to and liking of androstenone (AND) and liking of skatole (SKA) was also tested. In each of the six countries, consumers liked the odour of the BO samples less than that of BA, and IC intermediate. For flavour, tenderness, juiciness, overall liking and willingness to buy, liking scores given by the Czech, Polish and Portuguese consumers significantly differed between the BA, BO and IC. Willingness to buy was highest for BA by Czech and Polish consumers and for BA and IC by Portuguese consumers. The frequency of the negative check all terms that apply terms also differed, with a higher frequency of disgusting for BO compared to BA and IC and of off-flavour, irritating, manure, sweat, disappointing compared to BA, and intermediate for IC. 31% of the consumers disliked the odour of AND (NEG_AND), and 36% of them were not sensitive; in contrast, 77% of the consumers disliked SKA (NEG_SKA). The decrease in flavour liking score for BO compared to BA and IC was more outspoken by the NEG_AND consumer, while NEG_SKA consumers gave an overall lower liking score independent of the type of male pig. The results of this study indicate that IC can be a valid alternative for surgical castration.

Sensory Profiling and Liking of Salami and Pancetta from Immunocastrated, Surgically Castrated and Entire Male Pigs

Simple Summary

Alternatives to surgical castration are an important issue in pig production due to societal concerns regarding animal welfare. Castration of piglets is a common practice to avoid boar taint, an unpleasant taste (urine/fecal like) of meat from uncastrated male pigs. In view of abandoning surgical castration and introduction of new alternatives, such as raising entire male pigs and applying immunocastration, several new issues are emerging. These include boar taint occurrence in case of entire male pigs and a deteriorated raw material (meat, fat) quality, which can affect consumer perception. Therefore, more information is needed about the consumer acceptance of products from the different alternatives. In the present study, two types of dry-cured meat products were assessed to give some insights into the sensory characteristic and consumers’ liking of the products coming from immunocastrated, entire male and surgically castrated animals.

Abstract

Consumer studies on acceptability of pork from immunocastrates (IC) and entire males (EM) are of primary importance, if these alternatives are to replace surgical castration (SC) of piglets. Data on the sensory traits and consumers acceptance of IC and EM meat products are still limited. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to (1) describe the sensory profile by quantitative descriptive analysis and (2) test the perception and consumer liking of salami (dry-fermented sausage) and pancetta (dry-cured belly) from EM, IC and SC animals. The consumer tests included the scaling method and check-all-that-apply. Profiling showed that EM products were scored lower in the overall sensory quality compared to IC or SC. EM products differed mainly from IC and SC in the intensity of the manure, sweat odor and flavor, persistent impression and texture (hardness, gumminess and easy to fragment). Salami samples did not differ in liking. In pancetta, the differences were significant for odor liking and visual quality (expected liking). Consumers did not perceive EM products as inferior in terms of liking, while sensory profiling indicated differences for boar taint presence and texture. Using meat originating from IC did not result in any differences in consumers acceptance as compared to products from SC.

Sustainable use of tainted boar meat: Blending is a strategy for processed products

While forming mixtures is a widely used approach for other raw materials in food industry, it has not yet been systematically analyzed for boar tainted meat. That is why we simultaneously studied four factors relevant for the production of emulsion-type sausages: percentage boar meat (skatole concentrations up to 0.3 μg/g, androstenone up to 3.8 μg/g in melted backfat), duration of traditional smoke and concentration levels of two spices. 16 variants of Frankfurters were produced in two independent studies and evaluated by in total 211 consumers. A linear mixed effects model revealed that increased levels of boar tainted meat significantly reduced consumer acceptance which could not be compensated by increased smoke or spice levels. We propose a non-inferiority test to identify the mixture which is similarly accepted as the reference made without boar tainted meat. Up to 33% tainted boar meat is proposed, assuming a liking drop of 0.5 on a 9 point liking scale as benchmark for an inferior product.

Reduction of androstenone perception in pan-fried boar meat by different masking strategies

BACKGROUND

Consumers highly sensitive to androstenone María (AND) will probably reject meat from entire male pigs, which tends to have high levels of this hormone. To avoid this, the effect of different masking strategies (sprinkling with mixed spices or fennel, marinating and breading with garlic-parsley or curry) on the sensory parameters of pork loin chops obtained from entire animals with high levels of AND (1.0-2.9 mg kg^-1 AND in fat) and castrated animals (<0.4 mg kg^-1 AND in fat), both with low levels of skatole (<0.1 mg kg^-1 skatole in fat) was investigated.

RESULTS

The garlic-parsley breadcrumbs led to the highest reduction in the perception of AND compared with the other masking strategies used, and preserved the juiciness of the product. There was a negative correlation between AND and fat content.

CONCLUSION

AND odor and flavor can be reduced in meat from entire male pigs by using suitable strategies, the best strategy being the garlic-parsley breadcrumbs. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

The use of smoke as a strategy for masking boar taint in sausages and bacon

Smoke has often been recommended as a masking agent for boar taint. However, guidelines on how much smoke is necessary have not been established. We compared different smoking parameters in bacon (smoking times) and sausages (smoking times and use of liquid smoke). In streaky bacon from entire male pigs with skatole concentrations of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentrations of up to 5.8 μg/g in the neck fat, three smoking times were compared: 10, 30 and 60 min. Boar taint was partially, but not fully, masked. The longer the smoking time, the better the masking effect. In sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentration of up to 3.6 μg/g (the meat part) or 2.4 μg/g (the fat part) in the neck fat, smoking for 40 and 80 min fully masked the boar taint, whereas only a minor effect was seen after 10 and 20 min smoking. Liquid smoke (0.1%) did not mask boar taint when added to sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of 0.36 μg/g (meat) or 0.38 μg/g (fat) and androstenone concentration of 2.3 μg/g (meat) and 2.9 μg/g (fat). To effectively mask boar taint, an intense smoked flavour is therefore necessary, and the longer the smoking time, the better. In contrast, the use of liquid smoke mixed into the product was not effective in the concentrations used in the current study.

Consumer acceptance of minced meat patties from boars in four European countries

A consumer study was performed in four EU countries to further clarify the acceptability of meat with boar taint. In Denmark, France, Italy and Poland, a total of 476 female consumers evaluated 8 meat patties from boars with varying levels of skatole (0.10-0.40μg/g fat tissue) and androstenone (0.47-2.00 μg/g fat tissue), in a pair-wise comparison with patties from castrates. Boar meat patties were always less preferred than the castrate meat patties, regardless of the level of androstenone and skatole. Acceptability of the boar meat patties decreased with increasing skatole level. In samples with low skatole levels, higher levels of androstenone also reduced acceptability among androstenone sensitive consumers. No clear threshold levels for androstenone and skatole could be identified. Maps presenting the reduction in preference due to increasing levels of skatole and androstenone, and corrected for the general acceptance of the meat product were developed, taking into account androstenone sensitivity. Further work is needed, covering the whole range of androstenone and skatole levels found in entire male pigs and for a wider set of meat products.

Sensory evaluation of boar meat products by trained experts

Rearing entire male pigs, one of the alternatives for surgical castration, entails the possible occurrence of boar taint. This study aimed at the investigation of the acceptability of meat from entire male pigs in 8 different meat products (cutlets, bacon, blade loin, tenderloin, dry fermented sausage, cooked ham, dry-cured ham and minced meat) by trained assessors. Generally, the sensory evaluation of meat samples was affected the most in the androstenone (AEON) group, indicating that AEON is the most offensive boar taint compound for sensitive assessors. Differences between the meat products showed the highest potential for processing tainted meat in cold meat products, which was most likely due to the serving temperature on the one hand and production-related influences on the other. However, more insights regarding reducing and masking effects of production-related factors on boar taint are necessary.

Consumers' sensitivity to androstenone and the evaluation of different cooking methods to mask boar taint

Boar taint is an unpleasant odour and flavour present in some entire male pigs that is due to the presence of androstenone and skatole. The aim of the study was to assess the sensitivity of 150 consumers to androstenone and to compare the acceptability and liking of meat from castrated and entire pigs, cooked with different cooking methods. Meat samples consisted of loins from castrated (CM) and entire male pigs (EM) with high levels of androstenone cooked by two cooking methods: sous-vide and fried/breaded with garlic and parsley. Consumers evaluated smell and flavour acceptability, and overall liking of CM and EM for each cooking method. The results of the study showed that dislike of androstenone odour increased significantly with sensitivity. The results of acceptability and overall liking were similar in CM and EM for both cooking methods. Therefore, the two cooking methods used in the study may be useful to mask boar taint.

Russian and Chinese consumers' acceptability of boar meat patties depending on their sensitivity to androstenone and skatole

The aim of this work was to study the sensitivity of Chinese and Russian female consumers to androstenone and skatole and to identify their preference for pork patties from entire male pigs compared with those from castrated pigs. One-hundred-twenty women in each country were enrolled. The sensitivity of the consumers to both compounds was tested using smell strips and triangular tests. Pairwise tests were performed comparing patties from castrated male pigs with patties from boars with different levels of androstenone and skatole. Approximately 70% of the Russian and 60% of the Chinese consumers were sensitive to skatole and 37% and 32% were sensitive to androstenone, respectively. Nevertheless, a higher percentage of sensitive Russian consumers compared to Chinese consumers disliked the smell of both compounds. In Russia, the consumers' preferences were higher for patties with low levels of both compounds, while no differences were found in China. In both countries, consumers who were sensitive to skatole also preferred patties with low levels of both compounds. Thus, the levels of androstenone and skatole affect boar patty preferences.

Consumers' perception and acceptance of boiled and fermented sausages from strongly boar tainted meat

Characteristic off-flavours may occur in uncastrated male pigs depending on the accumulation of androstenone and skatole. Feasible processing of strongly tainted carcasses is challenging but gains in importance due to the European ban on piglet castration in 2018. This paper investigates consumers' acceptability of two sausage types: (a) emulsion-type (BOILED) and (b) smoked raw-fermented (FERM). Liking (9 point scales) and flavour perception (check-all-that-apply with both, typical and negatively connoted sensory terms) were evaluated by 120 consumers (within-subject design). Proportion of tainted boar meat (0, 50, 100%) affected overall liking of BOILED, F (2, 238)=23.22, P<.001, but not of FERM sausages, F (2, 238)=0.89, P=.414. Consumers described the flavour of BOILED-100 as strong and sweaty. In conclusion, FERM products seem promising for processing of tainted carcasses whereas formulations must be optimized for BOILED in order to eliminate perceptible off-flavours. Boar taint rejection thresholds may be higher for processed than those suggested for unprocessed meat cuts.

Evaluation of different strategies to mask boar taint in cooked sausage

The use of smoking and/or spices was evaluated for their ability to mask boar taint in frankfurters manufactured from entire pigs with high levels of androstenone. Five frankfurter types were considered: control, smoked, flavouring+smoked, spicy and spicy+smoked. A trained panel in androstenone perception carried out a sensory profile on the different sausages. The highest scores for androstenone perception (odour, flavour and aftertaste) were found in frankfurters that included no masking strategy which indicated the effectiveness of the evaluated strategies. Regarding masking strategies, the contribution of spices and smoking to sensory perception of frankfurters was detected by the panellists. Smoking was the best strategy to mask androstenone odour, while the use of spices masked androstenone odour to a greater extent than androstenone flavour. Only the combined use of spices and smoking was able to eliminate the perception of androstenone. The application of this strategy in frankfurters could be an alternative in the commercialization of entire pigs.