Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by nanofiltration membranes: Rejection and fouling mechanisms

Fouling behavior of nanofiltration membrane during the refining treatment of morphlines-dominant reverse osmosis concentrate

Nanofiltration (NF) has been proven to be with great potential for the separation of morpholines with molecular weight less than 200 Da in refining reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC), but its application is significantly restricted by the membrane fouling, which can reduce the rejection and service time. To enable the long-term operation stability of nanofiltration, this work focuses on the fouling behavior of each substance in the hydrosaline organic solution on nanofiltration membrane, aiming to give insight into the fouling mechanism. To this end, in this work, the effects of salts (i.e NaCl and Na2SO4), organic substances (including N-(2-hydroxypropyl)morpholine(NMH) and 4-morpholineacetate(MHA)) and representative divalent ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) on the performance and physicochemical properties of DK membrane were systematically investigated. The results show that both salts and organics can induce DK membrane swelling, leading to an increase of the mean effective pore size. After the filtration of Na2SO4-NaCl-H2O, the mean pore size increased by 0.002 nm, resulting in the decrease of the removal ratio of NMH and MHA for 3.82% and 13.10%, respectively. With static adsorption of NMH and MHA, the mean pore size of DK membrane increased by 0.005 and 0.003 nm. The swelling slowed the entrance of more organic molecules into membrane pores. Among them, MHA led to the terrible irreversible pore blocking. As the concentration of Ca2+ increased, gypsum scaling was formed on the membrane surface. During this process, NMH and MHA played different roles, i.e. NMH accelerated the CaSO4 crystallization while MHA inhibited. As a conclusion, the fouling behavior of substances in the high saline organic wastewater on DK membrane were systematically revealed with the fouling mechanisms proposed, which could provide an insightful guidance for membrane fouling control and cleaning in the treatment of high salinity and organic wastewater.

Length-controlled hydrophobic CF3-COF as a highly efficient absorbent coating for dual-mode solid-phase microextraction of sixteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a group of seriously hazardous environmental contaminants, have attracted extensive attention due to their carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, and ubiquity. In this work, the excellent hydrophobic trifluoromethyl-enriched covalent organic framework (CF3-COF) was designed and synthesized as coating of solid-phase microextraction (SPME). The CF3-COF offered a high adsorption selectivity for PAHs, which could be attributed to the multiple interactions between the CF3-COF and PAHs, including hydrophobicity interaction, π-π and H bond interactions. Furthermore, headspace (HS) and direct immersion (DI) dual-mode solid-phase microextraction (HS/DI-SPME) were innovatively integrated as a dual-mode extraction by varying the length of SPME coating on stainless-steel, which could simultaneously and efficiently extract 16 PAHs with different volatile. Amazingly, the proposed strategy achieved fast adsorption for PAHs and shortened the adsorption equilibrium time to 15 min. By further integrating with gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS), PAHs could be detected in the range of 0.008-0.16 ng mL-1 with a quantitative limit of 0.029-0.47 ng mL-1, respectively. The recoveries of PAHs in water samples ranged from 80.84 to 117.67 %. This work indicates that the dual-mode CF3-COF-SPME is a promising candidate for the enrichment of multiple hazardous substances in complicated samples.

Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) removal by nanofiltration with and without coexisting organics

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are contaminants of great concern owing to their persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation in aquatic environments. In this study, nanofiltration (NF) was used to investigate the removal of naphthalene (NAP) and phenanthrene (PHE) using three membranes of NF270, NF90, and DK. Subsequently, we examined the effects of coexisting organics on PAHs removal. Based on the results, DK was determined to be the optimal membrane for removing PAHs by comparing the membrane flux and pollutant rejection. The membrane flux reached 34.32 L/m2·h, and the NAP and PHE rejections were 92.21% and 97.85%, respectively, at transmembrane pressure (TMP) of 5 bar using DK. Coexisting organics decreased the membrane fluxes of NF270 and DK in the following order: protein > glucose > humic acid. The NAP and PHE rejections were obviously improved using NF270 in the following order: humic acid > protein > glucose. The PHE rejection was slightly improved using DK. A low concentration of organics could reduce the NAP rejection using DK; however, the NAP rejection could be restored at high concentrations of organics, except for humic acid. Coexisting organics could cause severe membrane fouling. The order of the effect of different coexisting organics on membrane fouling was protein > humic acid > glucose. The total investment and operating costs were about 1.47 and 0.187 million dollars, respectively, for treating PAHs solution using DK when the feed flow was 300 m3/d.

Advanced treatment of coking wastewater: Recent advances and prospects

Advanced treatment of refractory industrial wastewater is still a challenge. Coking wastewater is one of coal chemical wastewater, which contains various refractory organic pollutants. To meet the more and more rigorous discharge standard and increase the reuse ratio of coking wastewater, advanced treatment process must be set for treating the biologically treated coking wastewater. To date, several advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), including Fenton, ozone, persulfate-based oxidation, and iron-carbon micro-electrolysis, have been applied for the advanced treatment of coking wastewater. However, the performance of different advanced treatment processes changed greatly, depending on the components of coking wastewater and the unique characteristics of advanced treatment processes. In this review article, the state-of-the-art advanced treatment process of coking wastewater was systematically summarized and analyzed. Firstly, the major organic pollutants in the secondary effluents of coking wastewater was briefly introduced, to better understand the characteristics of the biologically treated coking wastewater. Then, the performance of various advanced treatment processes, including physiochemical methods, biological methods, advanced oxidation methods and combined methods were discussed for the advanced treatment of coking wastewater in detail. Finally, the conclusions and remarks were provided. This review will be helpful for the proper selection of advanced treatment processes and promote the development of advanced treatment processes for coking wastewater.

Impact of a nanofiltration system on microplastic contamination in Geneva groundwater (Switzerland)

Microplastics (MPs) have been observed in the oceans, fresh waters, karstic water and remote water bodies. However, little is known on groundwater contamination, which is a natural resource of utmost importance for millions of people and is often perceived as a reliable source of water. Moreover, nanofiltration is perceived as a reliable technology to remove contaminants from water. In this study, large sample volumes of a silty-sandy gravel aquifer and the corresponding nanofiltered water were analysed for the presence of MPs (> 20 µm) using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microscopy. Concentration in ground water was 8 ± 7 MPs/m3 and increased to 36 ± 11 MPs/m3 in nanofiltered water. All MPs had a maximum Ferret diameter lower than 500 µm. Size distribution of MPs was towards the small size class (20-50 µm). In groundwater, 33% of MPs were detected in the smallest size class (20-50 µm) and 67% in the 50-100-µm-size class. In comparison, around 52% of MPs in nanofiltered water were observed in the 20-50 µm size class. Moreover, 33% of the MPs observed in nanofiltered water were in the 50-100 µm size class and 15% in the 100-500-µm-size class. From a chemical point of view, different plastic polymers were identified in groundwater and in nanofiltered water, such as polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), ethylene (vinyl acetate) copolymer (EVA), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and other polymer materials (such as polystyrene-based copolymers, vinyl-based copolymers). Fibres were observed in all samples, but only a small number of fibres (near 1%) were identified as PP synthetic fibres in nanofiltered water. Furthermore, no clear difference of fibre concentrations was observed between groundwater (232 ± 127 fibres/m3) and nanofiltered water (247 ± 118 fibres/m3). Groundwater had extremely low levels of microplastics, and although the nanofiltration effectively removes suspended particulate matter, it slightly contaminates the filtered water with MPs.

Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in aquatic environments by a symbiotic system consisting of algae and bacteria: green and sustainable technology

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are genotoxic, carcinogenic, and persistent in the environment and are therefore of great concern in the environmental protection field. Due to the inherent recalcitrance, persistence and nonreactivity of PAHs, they are difficult to remediate via traditional water treatment methods. In recent years, microbial remediation has been widely used as an economical and environmentally friendly degradation technology for the treatment of PAH-contaminated water. Various bacterial and microalgal strains are capable of potentially degrading or transforming PAHs through intrinsic metabolic pathways. However, their biodegradation potential is limited by the cytotoxic effects of petroleum hydrocarbons, unfavourable environmental conditions, and biometabolic limitations. To address this limitation, microbial communities, biochemical pathways, enzyme systems, gene organization, and genetic regulation related to PAH degradation have been intensively investigated. The advantages of algal-bacterial cocultivation have been explored, and the limitations of PAHs degradation by monocultures of algae or bacteria have been overcome by algal-bacterial interactions. Therefore, a new model consisting of a "microalgal-bacterial consortium" is becoming a new management strategy for the effective degradation and removal of PAHs. This review first describes PAH pollution control technologies (physical remediation, chemical remediation, bioremediation, etc.) and proposes an algal-bacterial symbiotic system for the degradation of PAHs by analysing the advantages, disadvantages, and PAH degradation performance in this system to fill existing research gaps. Additionally, an algal-bacterial system is systematically developed, and the effects of environmental conditions are explored to optimize the degradation process and improve its technical feasibility. The aim of this paper is to provide readers with an effective green and sustainable remediation technology for removing PAHs from aquatic environments.

Quantifying uncertainty in nanofiltration transport models for enhanced metals recovery

To decarbonize our global energy system, sustainably harvesting metals from diverse sourcewaters is essential. Membrane-based processes have recently shown great promise in meeting these needs by achieving high metal ion selectivities with relatively low water and energy use. An example is nanofiltration, which harnesses steric, dielectric, and Donnan exclusion mechanisms to perform size- and charge-based fractionation of metal ions. To further optimize nanofiltration systems, multicomponent models are needed; however, conventional methods necessitate large amounts of data for model calibration, introduce substantial uncertainty into the characterization process, and often yield poor results when extrapolated. In this work, we develop a new computational architecture to alleviate these concerns. Specifically, we develop a framework that: (1) reduces the data requirement for model calibration to only charged species measurements; (2) eliminates uncertainty propagation problems present in conventional characterization processes; (3) enables exploration of pH optimization for enhancing metal ion selectivities; and (4) enables uncertainty quantification to assess the sensitivity of partition coefficients and ion driving forces to learned pore size distributions. Our framework captures eight independent datasets comprising over 500 measurements to within ±15%. Our studies also suggest that the expectation-maximization algorithm can effectively learn pore size distributions and that optimizing pH can improve metal ion selectivities by a factor of 3-10×. Our findings also reveal that image charges appear to play a less pronounced role in dielectric exclusion under the studied conditions and that ion driving forces are more sensitive to pore size distributions than partition coefficients.

Resource recovery from RO concentrate using nanofiltration: Impact of active layer thickness on performance

Modelling the removal of monovalent and divalent ions from seawater via nanofiltration is crucial for pre-treatment in seawater reverse osmosis systems. Effective separation of divalent ions through nanofiltration and allowing the permeate containing only monovalent ions to pass through the reverse osmosis system produces pure NaCl salt from the concentrate. However, the Donnan steric pore model and dielectric exclusion assume a uniformly distributed cylinder pore morphology, which is not representative of the actual membrane structure. This study analyzed the impact of membrane thickness on neutral solute removal and investigated the effect of two different methods for calculating the Peclet number on rejection rates of monovalent and divalent salts. Results show that membrane thickness has a significant effect on rejection rates, particularly for uncharged solutes in the range of 0.5-0.7 solute radius to membrane pore size ratio. Operating pressures above 10 bar favour the use of effective active layer thickness over the membrane pore size to calculate the Peclet number. At low pressures, using the effective active layer can lead to overestimation of monovalent salt rejection and underestimation of divalent salt rejection. This study highlights the importance of appropriate Peclet number calculation methods based on applied pressure when modelling membrane separation performance.

PAHs remediation from hazardous waste landfill leachate using fenton, photo - fenton and electro - fenton oxidation processes - performance evaluation under optimized conditions using RSM and ANN

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocharbons (PAHs) are a class of highly toxic pollutants that are highly detrimental to the ecosystem. Landfill leechate emanated from municipal solid waste are reported to constitute significant PAHs. In the present investigation, three Fenton proceses, namely conventional Fenton, photo-fenton and electro-fenton methods have been employed to treat landfill leehcate for removing PAHs from a waste dumpig yard. Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) methodologies were adopted to optimize and validate the conditions for optimum oxidative removal of COD and PAHs. The statistical analysis results showed that all independent variables chosen in the study are reported to have significant influence of the removal effects with P-values <0.05. Sensitivity analysis by the developed ANN model showed that the pH had the highest significance of 1.89 in PAH removal when compared to the other parameters. However for COD removal, H2O2 had the highest relative importance of 1.15, followed by Fe2+ and pH. Under optimal treatment conditions, the photo-fenton and electro-fenton processes showed better removal of COD and PAH compared to the Fenton process. The photo-fenton and electro-fenton treatment processes removed 85.32% and 74.64% of COD and 93.25% and 81.65% of PAHs, respectively. Also the investigations revelaed the presence of 16 distinct PAH compunds and the removal percentage of each of these PAHs are also reported. The PAH treatment research studies are generally limited to the assay of removal of PAH and COD levels. In the present investigation, in addition to the treatment of landfill leachate, particle size distribution analysis and elemental characterization of the resultant iron sludge by FESEM and EDX are reported. It was revealed that elemental oxygen is present in highest percentage, followed by iron, sulphur, sodium, chlorine, carbon and potassium. However, iron percentage can be reduced by treating the Fenton-treated sample with NaOH.

Removal of pharmaceutically active compounds from water sources using nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes: Comparison of removal efficiencies and in-depth analysis of rejection mechanisms

Trace organic compounds from effluent streams are not completely removed by conventional purification techniques and hence, contaminating groundwater sources. Herein, we report the removal efficiency and rejection mechanisms of three common pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs); caffeine (CFN), omeprazole (OMZ), and sulfamethoxazole (SMX), using commercial nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes with different surface characteristics. The RO membranes showed near-complete removal of all PhACs with rejection rates >99%. On the other hand, retention capabilities for the NF membranes varied and were influenced by the characteristics of the PhACs, membranes, and the feed solution. In general, during long-term testing, the rejection did not show much variation and followed a trend compatible with the size exclusion (steric hindrance) mechanism. When a real matrix was used, the rejection of CFN by the more tight NF membranes, HL TFC and NFW decreased by ∼10%, whereas the removal of SMX by the loose NF membrane, XN45, increased by the same ratio. In short-term testing, the rejection of negatively charged SMX increased significantly (∼20-40%) at a higher pH of ∼8 and in the presence of salts. Fouling by the PhACs was more severe on the high-flux NF membranes, HL TFC and XN45, as witnessed by the significant change in Contact angle (CA) values (∼25-50°) as well as the flux decline (∼15%) during long-term testing. To summarize, the removal of PhACs by membranes is a complex phenomenon and depends upon a combination of several factors.

Generalization and Expansion of the Hermia Model for a Better Understanding of Membrane Fouling

One of the most broadly used models for membrane fouling is the Hermia model (HM), which separates this phenomenon into four blocking mechanisms, each with an associated parameter n. The original model is given by an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) dependent on n. This ODE is solved only for these four values of n, which limits the effectiveness of the model when adjusted to experimental data. This paper aims extend the original Hermia model to new values of n by slightly increasing the complexity of the HM while keeping it as simple as possible. The extended Hermia model (EHM) is given by a power law for any n ≠ 2 and by an exponential function at n = 2. Analytical expressions for the fouling layer thickness and the accumulated volume are also obtained. To better test the model, we perform model fitting of the EHM and compare its performance to the original four pore-blocking mechanisms in six micro- and ultrafiltration examples. In all examples, the EHM performs consistently better than the four original pore-blocking mechanisms. Changes in the blocking mechanisms concerning transmembrane pressure (TMP), crossflow rate (CFR), crossflow velocity (CFV), membrane composition, and pretreatments are also discussed.

Highly efficient photodegradation of magnetic GO-Fe3O4@SiO2@CdS for phenanthrene and pyrene: Mechanism insight and application assessment

A novel magnetic core-shell Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@CdS embedded graphene oxide (GO) composite was prepared for the visible-light-driven photodegradation of high ring number polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The potential application of GO-Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@CdS was evaluated through the photodegradation of phenanthrene and pyrene in deionized water, tap water, and lake water, respectively. It was found that GO-Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@CdS could remove 86.4 % of phenanthrene and 93.4 % of pyrene, suggesting its potential for the degradation of high-ring number PAHs. The density functional theory (DFT) calculations demonstrate that pyrene has more active sites attacked by free radicals. The photoelectrochemical measurement and quenching experiments indicate that GO can transfer photoelectrons efficiently, resulting in the crucial radicals (O₂^-, OH and ¹O₂). More importantly, the photocatalytic activity kept almost constant during five cycles, confirming the significant anti-photocorrosion of GO-Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@CdS. This work provides some new insights into the removal of PAHs with high-ring numbers in the natural water environment.

Efficient capture of endocrine-disrupting compounds by a high-performance nanofiltration membrane for wastewater treatment

Conventional polyamide (PA) nanofiltration (NF) membranes can readily adsorb aromatic compounds, such as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). Therefore, these substances can easily be transported across the membrane by solution-diffusion, resulting in a poor EDC-rejection. In this work, a novel thin film nanocomposite (TFN) membrane was fabricated by incorporating covalent organic frameworks (COFs) into the PA layer via an interfacial polymerization reaction. COFs with functional groups can provide abundant active binding sites for highly efficient EDC-capture. The rejection of the optimal TFN-COF membrane for bisphenol A, bisphenol AF, and sodium 2-biphenylate was 98.3%, 99.1%, and 99.3%, respectively, which was much higher than of the rejection of the pristine NF-membrane (82.4%, 95.5%, and 96.4%, respectively). Additionally, the TFN-COF membrane could be regenerated fast and efficiently by washing with ethanol for some minutes. COF nanofillers with porous structures provide additional water channels, making it possible to overcome the permeability-selectivity trade-off of NF membranes. The water permeance (17.1 L m^-2 h^-1 bar^-1) of the optimal membrane was about two times higher than for the pristine NF-membrane (8.7 L m^-2 h^-1 bar^-1). In addition, the TFN-COF membrane with a COF-loading of 0.05% w/v had an excellent Na₂SO₄ rejection (95.2%) due to size exclusion and strong Donnan effect. This work combines traditional NF membranes and adsorption materials to achieve efficient capture and rapid release of EDCs without sacrificing salt rejections, which opens the door to develop fit-for-purpose adsorptive NF membranes.

Simultaneous Prediction, Determination, and Extraction of Four Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Environment Using a UCON-NaH2PO4 Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction System Combined with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet Detection

In this paper, a new aqueous two-phase extraction system(ATPES) consisting of UCON (poly(ethylene glycol-ran-propylene glycol) monobutyl ether)-NaH₂PO₄ was established, and four trace polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs: fluorene, anthracene, pyrene and phenanthrene) in water and soil were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-ultraviolet detection. In the multi-factor experiment, the central composite design (CCD) was used to determine the optimum technological conditions. The final optimal conditions were as follows: the concentration of UCON was 0.45 g·mL^-1, the concentration of NaH₂PO₄ was 3.5 mol·L^-1, and the temperature was 30 °C. The recovery of the four targets was 98.91-99.84% with a relative standard deviation of 0.3-2.1%. Then UCON recycling and cyclic tests were designed in the experiment, and the results showed that the recovery of PAHs gradually increased in the three extractions because of the remaining PAHs in the salt phase of last extraction. The recovery of PAHs in the UCON recycling test was less than that in the extraction test due to the wastage of UCON. In addition, a two-phase aqueous extraction model was established based on the random forest (RF) model. The results obtained were compared with the experimental data, and the root mean square error (RMSE) was 0.0371-0.0514 and the correlation coefficient R² was 96.20-98.53%, proving that the model is robust and reliable.

Dissolved organic matter within oil and gas associated wastewaters from U.S. unconventional petroleum plays: Comparisons and consequences for disposal and reuse

Wastewater generated during petroleum extraction (produced water) may contain high concentrations of dissolved organics due to their intimate association with organic-rich source rocks, expelled petroleum, and organic additives to fluids used for hydraulic fracturing of unconventional (e.g., shale) reservoirs. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) within produced water represents a challenge for treatment prior to beneficial reuse. High salinities characteristic of produced water, often 10× greater than seawater, coupled to the complex DOM ensemble create analytical obstacles with typical methods. Excitation-emission matrix spectroscopy (EEMS) can rapidly characterize the fluorescent component of DOM with little impact from matrix effects. We applied EEMS to evaluate DOM composition in 18 produced water samples from six North American unconventional petroleum plays. Represented reservoirs include the Eagle Ford Shale (Gulf Coast Basin), Wolfcamp/Cline Shales (Permian Basin), Marcellus Shale and Utica/Point Pleasant (Appalachian Basin), Niobrara Chalk (Denver-Julesburg Basin), and the Bakken Formation (Williston Basin). Results indicate that the relative chromophoric DOM composition in unconventional produced water may distinguish different lithologies, thermal maturity of resource types (e.g., heavy oil vs. dry gas), and fracturing fluid compositions, but is generally insensitive to salinity and DOM concentration. These results are discussed with perspective toward DOM influence on geochemical processes and the potential for targeted organic compound treatment for the reuse of produced water.

Biodegradation and detoxification of phenanthrene in in vitro and in vivo conditions by a newly isolated ligninolytic fungus Coriolopsis byrsina strain APC5 and characterization of their metabolites for environmental safety

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are recalcitrant organic pollutants generated from agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources, and their strong carcinogenic and teratogenic properties pose a harmful threat to human beings. The present study deals with the bioremediation of phenanthrene by a ligninolytic fungus, Coriolopsis byrsina (Mont.) Ryvarden strain APC5 (GenBank; KY418163.1), isolated from the fruiting body of decayed wood surface. During the experiment, Coriolopsis byrsina strain APC5 was found as a promising organism for the degradation and detoxification of phenanthrene (PHE) in in vitro and in vivo conditions. Further, HPLC analysis showed that the C. byrsina strain degraded 99.90% of 20 mg/L PHE in in vitro condition, whereas 77.48% degradation of 50 mg/L PHE was reported in in vivo condition. The maximum degradation of PHE was noted 25 °C temperature under shaking flask conditions at pH 6.0. Further, GC-MS analysis of fungal treated samples showed detection of 9,10-Dihydroxy phenanthrene, 2,2-Diphenic acid, phthalic acid, 4-heptyloxy phenol, benzene octyl, and acetic acid anhydride as the metabolic products of degraded PHE. Furthermore, the phytotoxicity evaluation of degraded PHE was observed through the seed germination method using Vigna radiata and Cicer arietinum seeds. The phytotoxicity results showed that the seed germination index and vegetative growth parameters of tested plants were increased in the degraded PHE soil. As results, C. byrsina strain APC5 was found to be a potential and promising organism to degrade and detoxify PHE without showing any adverse effect of their metabolites.

Enhancing the Antifouling Ability of a Polyamide Nanofiltration Membrane by Narrowing the Pore Size Distribution via One-Step Multiple Interfacial Polymerization

Application of nanofiltration membranes in industries still has to contend with membrane fouling that causes a significant loss of separation performance. Herein, an innovative approach to design antifouling membranes with a narrowed pore size distribution by interfacial polymerization (IP) assisted by silane coupling agents is reported. An aqueous solution of piperazine anhydrous (PIP) and γ-(2,3-epoxypropoxy) propytrimethoxysilane (KH560) is employed to perform IP with an organic solution of trimesoyl chloride and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) on a porous support. In accordance with the results of molecular dynamics and dissipative particle dynamics simulations, the reactive additive KH560 accelerates the diffusion rate of PIP to enrich at the reaction boundary. Moreover, the hydrolysis/condensation of KH560 and TEOS at the aqueous/organic interface forms an interpenetrating network with the polyamide network, which regulates the separation layer structure. The characterization results indicate that the polyamide-silica membrane has a denser, thicker, and uniform separation layer. The mean pore size of the polyamide-silica membrane and the traditional polyamide membrane is 0.62 and 0.74 nm, respectively, and these correspond to the geometric standard deviation (namely, pore size distribution) of 1.39 and 1.97, respectively. It is proved that the narrower pore size distribution endows the polyamide-silica membrane with stronger antifouling performance (flux decay ratio decreases from 18.4 to 3.8%). Such a membrane also has impressive long-term antifouling stability during cane molasses decolorization at a high temperature (50 °C). The outcomes of this study not only provide a novel one-step multiple IP strategy to prepare antifouling nanofiltration membranes but also emphasize the importance of pore size distribution in fouling control for various industrial liquid separations.

Halophilic Martelella sp. AD-3 enhanced phenanthrene degradation in a bioaugmented activated sludge system through syntrophic interaction

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of common recalcitrant pollutant in industrial saline wastewater that raised significant concerns, whereas traditional activated sludge (AS) has limited tolerance to high salinity and PAHs toxicity, restricting its capacity to degrade PAHs. It is therefore urgent to develop a bioaugmented sludge (BS) system to aid in the effective degradation of these types of compounds under saline condition. In this study, a novel bioaugmentation strategy was developed by using halophilic Martelella sp. AD-3 for effectively augmented phenanthrene (PHE) degradation under 3% salinity. It was found that a 0.5∼1.5% (w/w) ratio of strain AD-3 to activated sludge was optimal for achieving high PHE degradation activity of the BS system with degradation rates reaching 2.2 mg⋅gVSS^-1⋅h^-1, nearly 25 times that of the AS system. Although 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (1H2N) was accumulated obviously, the mineralization of PHE was more complete in the BS system. Reads-based metagenomic coupled metatranscriptomic analysis revealed that the expression values of ndoB, encoding a dioxygenase associated with PHE ring-cleavage, was 5600-fold higher in the BS system than in the AS system. Metagenome assembly showed the members of the Corynebacterium and Alcaligenes genera were abundant in the strain AD-3 bioaugmented BS system with expression of 10.3±1.8% and 1.9±0.26%, respectively. Moreover, phdI and nahG accused for metabolism of 1H2N have been annotated in both above two genera. Degradation assays of intermediates of PHE confirmed that the activated sludge actually possessed considerable degradation capacity for downstream intermediates of PHE including 1H2N. The degradation capacity ratio of 1H2N to PHE was 87% in BS system, while it was 26% in strain AD-3. These results indicated that strain AD-3 contributed mainly in transforming PHE to 1H2N in BS system, while species in activated sludge utilized 1H2N as substrate to grow, thus establishing a syntrophic interaction with strain AD-3 and achieving the complete mineralization of PHE. Long-term continuous experiment confirmed a stable PHE removal efficiency of 93% and few 1H2N accumulation in BS SBR system. This study demonstrated an effective bioaugmented strategy for the bioremediation of saline wastewater containing PAHs.

Chemoenzymatic Cascade Reaction for Green Cleaning of Polyamide Nanofiltration Membrane

Chemical cleaning is indispensable for the sustainable operation of nanofiltration (NF) in wastewater treatment. However, the common chemical cleaning methods are plagued by low cleaning efficiency, high chemical consumption, and separation performance deterioration. In this work, a chemoenzymatic cascade reaction is proposed for pollutant degradation and polyamide NF membrane cleaning. Glucose oxidase (GOD) enzymatic reaction in this cascade system produces hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and gluconic acid to trigger the oxidation of foulants by Fe₃O₄-catalyzed Fenton reaction. By virtue of the microenvironment (pH and H₂O₂ concentration) engineering and substrate enrichments, this chemoenzymatic cascade reaction (GOD-Fe₃O₄) exhibits a favorable degradation efficiency for bisphenol A and methyl blue (MB). Thanks to the strong oxidizing degradation, the water flux of the NF10 membrane fouled by MB is almost completely recovered (∼95.8%) after a 3-cycle fouling/cleaning experiment. Meanwhile, the chemoenzymatic cascade reaction improves the applicability of the Fenton reaction in polyamide NF membrane cleaning because it prevents the membrane from damaging by high concentration of H₂O₂ and inhibits the secondary fouling caused by ferric hydroxide precipitates. By immobilizing GOD on the aminated Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, a reusable cleaning agent is prepared for highly efficient membrane cleaning. This chemoenzymatic cascade reaction without the addition of an acid/base/oxidant provides a promising candidate for sustainable and cost-effective cleaning for the polyamide NF membrane.

New insights into the role of molecular structures on the fate and behavior of antibiotics in an osmotic membrane bioreactor

Osmotic membrane bioreactors (OMBRs) have been applied to enhance removal of antibiotics, however, information on the effects of molecular structures on the behavior of antibiotics is still lacking. Herein, adsorption kinetics, transformation pathways, and membrane rejection mechanisms of OMBRs were investigated by adding two typical antibiotics (i.e., sulfadiazine, SDZ, and tetracycline hydrochloride, TC-HCl). 80.70-91.12% of TC-HCl was removed by adsorption and biodegradation, while 17.50-75.14% of SDZ was removed by membrane rejection; this depended on its concentration due to reduced electrostatic interactions and hydrophobic adsorption. The adsorption capacity of TC-HCl (i.e., 1.34±0.01 mg/g) was significantly higher than that of SDZ (i.e., 0.18±0.03 mg/g) due to enhanced π-π interactions, hydrogen bonding and improved electrostatic interactions. The abundant production of polysaccharide-like substances from TC-HCl biodegradation contributed to microbial metabolism and thus enhanced microbial function during TC-HCl biotransformation. The primary degradation pathways were determined by microbial function analysis, and the primary intermediates from TC-HCl degradation were less toxic than those from SDZ degradation due to the different reactions of amino groups. These results and the corresponding mechanism provide a theoretical foundation for the further development of OMBR technology for highly efficient treatment of antibiotic wastewater.

Reusable Cavitand-Based Electrospun Membranes for the Removal of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Water

The removal of toxic and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from water is one of the most intractable environmental problems nowadays, because of their resistance to remediation. This work introduces a highly efficient, regenerable membrane for the removal of PAHs from water, featuring excellent filter performance and pH-driven release, thanks to the integration of a cavitand receptor in electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers. The role of the cavitand receptor is to act as molecular gripper for the uptake/release of PAHs. To this purpose, the deep cavity cavitand BenzoQxCav is designed and synthetized and its molecular structure is elucidated via X-Ray diffraction. The removal efficiency of the new adsorbent material toward the 16 priority PAHs is demonstrated via GC-MS analyses at ng L^-1 concentration. A removal efficiency in the 32%, to 99% range is obtained. The regeneration of the membrane is performed by exploiting the pH-driven conformational switching of the cavitand between the vase form, where the PAHs uptake takes place, to the kite one, where the PAHs release occurs. The absorbance and regeneration capability of the membrane are successfully tested in four uptake/release cycles and the morphological stability.

Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in conventional drinking water treatment processes

The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water poses a serious threat to the human health due to their toxic effects. Therefore, the removal of these compounds from drinking water in Potable Water Treatment Plants (PWTPs) should be evaluated and optimized to assure the quality of water intended for human consumption. In this work, changes in PAHs levels during drinking water treatment processes have been monitored to evaluate the effectiveness of conventional processes in the removal of these recalcitrant pollutants. Several chemical treatment methods based on the addition of KMnO₄, FeCl₃ and NaClO were evaluated through jar tests. The analysis of PAH content of aqueous samples was carried out by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The highest removal efficiency, over 90%, was obtained for benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene. The most recalcitrant compounds to degradation were fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene and flouranthene with reduction rates between 45 and 57%. The conventional treatment processes assessed have been proved to be effective reducing the PAH below the legal limits of drinking water quality. The definition of a parameter based on chemical properties of PAHs, i.e., sorption capacity and energy required to remove an electron, enabled the prediction of removal rate of pollutants which represents a valuable information for the plant operation.

Treatment of soy sauce wastewater with biomimetic dynamic membrane for colority removal and chemical oxygen demand lowering

Soy sauce wastewater has been produced in soy sauce production and consumption. To reuse this kind of water resource, the chemical oxygen demand (COD), colority should be removed or lowered. Biomimetic dynamic membrane (BDM), GO&Laccase@UF membrane, was prepared by filtering mixture of graphene oxide (GO) and laccase through ultrafiltration (UF) membrane. Compared to UF membrane, the prepared BDM showed great performance in removal of COD and colority, due to the higher laccase activity with existence of GO. The removal rate of colority reached ~80% by one step filtration operation. Moreover, the multiple cycle test evidenced that the value of COD and colority in the permeate after 5 consecutive cycles with the same GO&Laccase@UF membrane still meet the standard for reuse water. This work indicates the promising of BDM for wastewater from food industry.

Adsorption and fouling behaviors of customized nanocomposite membrane to trace pharmaceutically active compounds under multiple influent matrices

Rare information is available on fouling behavior of customized nanofiltration (NF) membrane evoked by pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) under real multiple influent matrices pretreated by ultrafiltration module beforehand. To this end, a novel tight NF membrane with excellent perm-selectivity and antiadhesion was fabricated and used to assess its separation performance/mechanism and fouling behavior to a broad range of small molecular PhACs in the context. The adsorption ratio results revealed that the affinities between five selected PhACs and the customized nanocomposite membrane surface were all much weaker (below 5.5%) than the solute-solute interacting forces (between 23.6 and 83.2%), whether for natural or synthetic complex micropollutants. The predominant membrane fouling could be interpreted by the incomplete blocking model in the permeation of both influent conditions. For neat nanocomposite membrane, the order of critical factors important on separation mechanism was electrostatic effect, adsorption and steric hindrance. The fouling layer seemed to act as a secondary separating layer for those negatively charged or hydrophilic PhACs, but showed the cake enhanced concentration polarization effect for the neutral and hydrophobic ones. This study provides valuable insights for defining PhACs fate and NF membrane fouling behavior to fit increasingly stringent criteria for wastewater treatment.

Chemicals-free approach control interface characteristics of nanofiltration membrane: Feasibility and mechanism insight into CEM electrolysis

The combined fouling effect prevalent in the nanofiltration (NF) process severely limits its use. In this study, cation exchange membrane (CEM) electrolysis was performed to alleviate NF membrane fouling by controlling interface characteristics. The results revealed that CEM electrolysis (hydraulic retention time with 0.24 or 0.36 h) effectively improved NF membrane permeability by 201%-211% and achieved a stability of > 8 LMH/bar. The divalent cations were removed through CEM electrolysis, with a decrease in Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ by approximately 68.8% and 30.9%, respectively, which was related to scaling potential reduction. This softening function reduced the possibility of bridging of organics with divalent cations, which contributed to the lower molecular weight of organic matter (mainly humic substances) distributed in 1.4-23 kDa. The improved organic indicators of the NF membrane permeate quality implied that the membrane interface characteristics improved. The foulant layer on the NF membrane dominated humic substances, and biopolymers exhibited hydrophobic, smooth, and porous characteristics. The self-aggregation of foulants on the NF membrane surface stimulated the interface characteristics with high water permeability. Energy consumption confirmed the feasibility of CEM electrolysis on NF application. Thus, CEM electrolysis as a chemical-free approach that can be combined with NF and can provide guidance for NF membrane fouling in urban water treatment and water reclamation.

Optimization of Micro-Pollutants' Removal from Wastewater Using Agricultural Waste-Derived Sustainable Adsorbent

Water pollution due to the discharge of untreated industrial effluents is a serious environmental and public health issue. The presence of organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) causes worldwide concern because of their mutagenic and carcinogenic effects on aquatic life, human beings, and the environment. PAHs are pervasive atmospheric compounds that cause nervous system damage, mental retardation, cancer, and renal kidney diseases. This research presents the first usage of palm kernel shell biochar (PKSB) (obtained from agricultural waste) for PAH removal from industrial wastewater (oil and gas wastewater/produced water). A batch scale study was conducted for the remediation of PAHs and chemical oxygen demand (COD) from produced water. The influence of operating parameters such as biochar dosage, pH, and contact time was optimized and validated using a response surface methodology (RSM). Under optimized conditions, i.e., biochar dosage 2.99 g L⁻¹, pH 4.0, and contact time 208.89 min, 93.16% of PAHs and 97.84% of COD were predicted. However, under optimized conditions of independent variables, 95.34% of PAH and 98.21% of COD removal was obtained in the laboratory. The experimental data were fitted to the empirical second-order model of a suitable degree for the maximum removal of PAHs and COD by the biochar. ANOVA analysis showed a high coefficient of determination value (R² = 0.97) and a reasonable second-order regression prediction. Additionally, the study also showed a comparative analysis of PKSB with previously used agricultural waste biochar for PAH and COD removal. The PKSB showed significantly higher removal efficiency than other types of biochar. The study also provides analysis on the reusability of PKSB for up to four cycles using two different methods. The methods reflected a significantly good performance for PAH and COD removal for up to two cycles. Hence, the study demonstrated a successful application of PKSB as a potential sustainable adsorbent for the removal of micro-pollutants from produced water.

New insights into effect of alkaline cleaning on fouling behavior of polyamide nanofiltration membrane for wastewater treatment

Membrane fouling is an intractable issue in wastewater treatment by nanofiltration (NF) membrane, and alkaline cleaning is the most effective approach to remove organic fouling on NF membrane. However, it was found that pore swelling of NF membrane induced by alkaline cleaning might reduce cleaning efficiency, and it is never quantified and its effect on membrane fouling behavior is still mysterious. In this work, membrane pore swelling effect (~9.7%, increment of effective pore size) induced by alkaline cleaning (pH 11) is confirmed and its effect on fouling behavior of the polyamide NF membrane is investigated based on experimental and modelling results. It is found that the alkali-induced pore swelling phenomenon would disappear after water filtration at neutral pH for 30 min, and if such cleaned membrane is faced by the small foulants during this pore shrinkage period, the concentration polarization and membrane fouling would be severer, and the subsequent alkaline cleaning is less effective because more foulants enter the enlarged pores and are tightly embedded in the membrane. Thus, the irreversible fouling of the NF membrane increases from 20% to 40% while its permeability recovery declines from 100% to 67% after six fouling/cleaning cycles. When an anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS, 10 mM) is added in the alkaline cleaning solution, the adsorption of SDS in/on the membrane can not only improve its hydrophilicity and negative charge, but also quickly eliminate the alkali-induced pore swelling effect and avoid the accumulation of foulants in the pores, thereby enhancing the antifouling performance of the NF membrane. Using the alkaline SDS cleaning, the irreversible fouling of the NF membrane maintains below 10% while its permeability recovery keeps above 100% in six continuous fouling/cleaning cycles.

Chemo-metric engineering designs for deciphering the biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are non-polar organic compounds that are omnipresent in the environment and released due to anthropogenic activities through emissions and discharges. PAHs, being xenobiotic and exerts health impacts, thus they attract serious concern by the environmentalists. The stringent regulations and the need of sustainable development urges the hunt for a technically feasible and cost-effective wastewater treatment. Although the conventional physico-chemical treatment are widely preferred, they cause secondary pollution problems and demand subsequent treatment options. This comprehensive review intends to address the (a) different PAHs and their associated toxicity, (b) the remedial strategies, particularly biodegradation. The biological wastewater treatment techniques that involve microbial systems are highly influenced by the different physio-chemical and environmental parameters. Therefore, suitable optimization techniques are prerequisite for effective functioning of the biological treatment that sustains judiciously and interpreted in a lesser time. Here we have aimed to discuss (a) different chemo-metric tools involved in the design of experiments (DoE), (b) design equations and models, (c) tools for evaluating the model's adequacy and (d) plots for graphically interpreting the chemo-metric designs. However, to best of our knowledge, this is a first review to discuss the PAHs biodegradation that are tailored by chemo-metric designs. The associated challenges, available opportunities and techno-economic aspects of PAHs degradation using chemo-metric engineering designs are explained. Additionally, the review highlights how well these DoE tools can be suited for the sustainable socio-industrial sectors. Concomitantly, the futuristic scope and prospects to undertake new areas of research exploration were emphasized to unravel the least explored chemo-metric designs.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Sources, Toxicity, and Remediation Approaches

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread across the globe mainly due to long-term anthropogenic sources of pollution. The inherent properties of PAHs such as heterocyclic aromatic ring structures, hydrophobicity, and thermostability have made them recalcitrant and highly persistent in the environment. PAH pollutants have been determined to be highly toxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and immunotoxicogenic to various life forms. Therefore, this review discusses the primary sources of PAH emissions, exposure routes, and toxic effects on humans, in particular. This review briefly summarizes the physical and chemical PAH remediation approaches such as membrane filtration, soil washing, adsorption, electrokinetic, thermal, oxidation, and photocatalytic treatments. This review provides a detailed systematic compilation of the eco-friendly biological treatment solutions for remediation of PAHs such as microbial remediation approaches using bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, and co-cultures. In situ and ex situ biological treatments such as land farming, biostimulation, bioaugmentation, phytoremediation, bioreactor, and vermiremediation approaches are discussed in detail, and a summary of the factors affecting and limiting PAH bioremediation is also discussed. An overview of emerging technologies employing multi-process combinatorial treatment approaches is given, and newer concepts on generation of value-added by-products during PAH remediation are highlighted in this review.

Ionic Cross-Linking Fabrication of Chitosan-Based Beads Modified with FeO and TiO2 Nanoparticles: Adsorption Mechanism toward Naphthalene Removal in Seawater from Cartagena Bay Area

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are complex molecules produced by the thermal decomposition of organic matter in anthropogenic activities. Novel composites with enhanced physicochemical properties aim to overcome limitations such as adsorption capacity, affinity, and stability for PAHs adsorption. Composites based on chitosan are promising due to the good biocompatibility and adsorption properties. This study focuses on the facile preparation of chitosan beads modified with iron oxide (FeO) and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles via ionic cross-linking (Ch-FeO/TiO₂). FeO and TiO₂ were synthesized performing co-precipitation and green chemistry methods, respectively. The characterization evidenced the formation of Ch-FeO/TiO₂ with good crystallinity, excellent thermal stability, and superparamagnetic response, attributed to the presence of FeO and TiO₂ nanoparticles. High thermal stability up to 270 °C was related to the cross-linked chitosan network. The enhanced adsorption mechanism of Ch-FeO/TiO₂ was determined by removing naphthalene from water and seawater samples. The Ch-FeO/TiO₂ showed a higher adsorption capacity of 33.1 mg/g compared to 29.8 mg/g of the unmodified chitosan (un-Ch) beads. This is due to the higher functional surface area of 27.13 m²/g, compared to that of 0.708 m²/g for un-Ch. We found a rapid adsorption rate of 240 min and the maximum adsorption capacity of 149.3 mg/g for Ch-FeO/TiO₂. A large number of actives sites allows for increasing the naphthalene molecules interaction. Adsorption in seawater samples from Cartagena Bay (Colombia) exhibits an outstanding efficiency of up to 90%. These results suggest a promising, cheap, and environmentally friendly composite for remediation of water sources contaminated with complex compounds.

Efficient Detection and Removal of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Using Cyclodextrin-Modified Cellulose

Covalent functionalization of cellulose with β-cyclodextrin by succinic acid-promoted cross-linking leads to a dual-function material that efficiently promotes proximity-induced energy transfer from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to squaraine fluorophores with high quantum yields, and removes PAHs from aqueous solution through non-covalent binding. This material, which possesses a high functionalization density (0.17 μg/mm² of cyclodextrin on cellulose), promotes energy transfer efficiencies as high as 58 % (for an anthracene donor in combination with a squaraine fluorophore acceptor), and leads to the removal of up to 91 % of a PAH (pyrene) from aqueous solution by mixing of the solution with the functionalized material. Overall, the high performance of this material in both proximity-induced energy transfer and the removal of PAHs from water means that such a method has significant potential impact in a variety of real-world environmental remediation scenarios.

Comprehensive review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water sources, their effects and treatments

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are principally derived from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. This study investigated the occurrence of PAHs in aquatic environments around the world, their effects on the environment and humans, and methods for their removal. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have a great negative impact on the humans and environment, and can even cause cancer in humans. Use of good methods and equipment are essential to monitoring PAHs, and GC/MS and HPLC are usually used for their analysis in aqueous solutions. In aquatic environments, the PAHs concentrations range widely from 0.03 ng/L (seawater; Southeastern Japan Sea, Japan) to 8,310,000 ng/L (Domestic Wastewater Treatment Plant, Siloam, South Africa). Moreover, bioaccumulation of ∑16PAHs in fish has been reported to range from 11.2 ng/L (Cynoscion guatucupa, South Africa) to 4207.5 ng/L (Saurida undosquamis, Egypt). Several biological, physical and chemical and biological techniques have been reported to treat water contaminated by PAHs, but adsorption and combined treatment methods have shown better removal performance, with some methods removing up to 99.99% of PAHs.