1
|
Zelmer AR, Starczak Y, Solomon LB, Richter K, Yang D, Atkins GJ. Saos-2 cells cultured under hypoxia rapidly differentiate to an osteocyte-like stage and support intracellular infection by Staphylococcus aureus. Physiol Rep 2023; 11:e15851. [PMID: 37929653 PMCID: PMC10626491 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The intracellular infection of osteocytes represents a clinically important aspect of osteomyelitis. However, few human osteocyte in vitro models exist and the differentiation of immature osteoblasts to an osteocyte stage typically takes at least 4-weeks of culture, making the study of this process challenging and time consuming. The osteosarcoma cell line Saos-2 has proved to be a useful model of human osteoblast to mature osteocyte differentiation. Culture under osteogenic conditions in a standard normoxic (21% O2 ) atmosphere results in reproducible mineralization and acquisition of mature osteocyte markers over the expected 28-35 day culture period. In order to expedite experimental assays, we tested whether reducing available oxygen to mimic concentrations experienced by osteocytes in vivo would increase the rate of differentiation. Cells cultured under 1% O2 exhibited maximal mineral deposition by 14 days. Early (COLA1, MEPE) and mature (PHEX, DMP1, GJA1, SOST) osteocyte markers were upregulated earlier under hypoxia compared to normoxia. Cells differentiated under 1% O2 for 14 days displayed a similar ability to internalize Staphylococcus aureus as day 28 cells grown under normoxic conditions. Thus, low oxygen accelerates Saos-2 osteocyte differentiation, resulting in a useful human osteocyte-like cell model within 14 days.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anja R. Zelmer
- Biomedical Orthopaedic Research Group, Centre for Orthopaedic & Trauma Research, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Yolandi Starczak
- Biomedical Orthopaedic Research Group, Centre for Orthopaedic & Trauma Research, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Lucian B. Solomon
- Centre for Orthopaedic & Trauma Research, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
- Department of Orthopaedics and TraumaRoyal Adelaide HospitalAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Katharina Richter
- Richter Lab, Department of SurgeryBasil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Dongqing Yang
- Biomedical Orthopaedic Research Group, Centre for Orthopaedic & Trauma Research, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Gerald J. Atkins
- Biomedical Orthopaedic Research Group, Centre for Orthopaedic & Trauma Research, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Piccolo EB, Thorp EB, Sumagin R. Functional implications of neutrophil metabolism during ischemic tissue repair. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2022; 63:102191. [PMID: 35276496 PMCID: PMC8995387 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2022.102191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Immune cell mobilization and their accumulation in the extravascular space is a key consequence of tissue injury. Maladaptive trafficking and immune activation following reperfusion of ischemic tissue can exacerbate tissue repair. After ischemic injury such as myocardial infarction (MI), PMNs are the first cells to arrive at the sites of insult and their response is critical for the sequential progression of ischemia from inflammation to resolution and finally to tissue repair. However, PMN-induced inflammation can also be detrimental to cardiac function and ultimately lead to heart failure. In this review, we highlight the role of PMNs during key cellular and molecular events of ischemic heart failure. We address new research on PMN metabolism, and how this orchestrates diverse functions such as PMN chemotaxis, degranulation, and phagocytosis. Particular focus is given to PMN metabolism regulation by mitochondrial function and mTOR kinase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enzo B Piccolo
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 300 East Superior St, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Edward B Thorp
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 300 East Superior St, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
| | - Ronen Sumagin
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 300 East Superior St, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
THE ULTRASTRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE ADRENAL GLANDS UNDER THE COMBINED EFFECT OF HYPOBARIC HYPOXIA AND STAPHYLOCOCCAL PERITONITIS. WORLD OF MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.26724/2079-8334-2021-3-77-254-258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
|
4
|
Yuki K, Koutsogiannaki S. Neutrophil and T Cell Functions in Patients with Congenital Heart Diseases: A Review. Pediatr Cardiol 2021; 42:1478-1482. [PMID: 34282478 PMCID: PMC8289712 DOI: 10.1007/s00246-021-02681-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
With a significant improvement of survival in patients with congenital heart disease, we expect to encounter these patients more frequently for various medical issues. Clinical studies indicate that infection can pose higher risk in this cohort than general population. Here, with the hypothesis that more severe infection-related complications in CHD cohort may be linked to their inadequate immune response, we reviewed the current literature regarding neutrophil and T cell functions in patients with congenital heart diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Yuki
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Cardiac Anesthesia Division, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Department of Anaesthesia and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Sophia Koutsogiannaki
- grid.2515.30000 0004 0378 8438Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Cardiac Anesthesia Division, Boston Children’s Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115 USA ,grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Anaesthesia and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mahiddine K, Blaisdell A, Ma S, Créquer-Grandhomme A, Lowell CA, Erlebacher A. Relief of tumor hypoxia unleashes the tumoricidal potential of neutrophils. J Clin Invest 2020; 130:389-403. [PMID: 31600172 DOI: 10.1172/jci130952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are increasingly recognized to influence solid tumor development, but why their effects are so context dependent and even frequently divergent remains poorly understood. Using an autochthonous mouse model of uterine cancer and the administration of respiratory hyperoxia as a means to improve tumor oxygenation, we provide in vivo evidence that hypoxia is a potent determinant of tumor-associated PMN phenotypes and direct PMN-tumor cell interactions. Upon relief of tumor hypoxia, PMNs were recruited less intensely to the tumor-bearing uterus, but the recruited cells much more effectively killed tumor cells, an activity our data moreover suggested was mediated via their production of NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species and MMP-9. Simultaneously, their ability to promote tumor cell proliferation, which appeared to be mediated via their production of neutrophil elastase, was rendered less effective. Relieving tumor hypoxia thus greatly improved net PMN-dependent tumor control, leading to a massive reduction in tumor burden. Remarkably, this outcome was T cell independent. Together, these findings identify key hypoxia-regulated molecular mechanisms through which PMNs directly induce tumor cell death and proliferation in vivo and suggest that the contrasting properties of PMNs in different tumor settings may in part reflect the effects of hypoxia on direct PMN-tumor cell interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karim Mahiddine
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Adam Blaisdell
- Department of Pathology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Stephany Ma
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Clifford A Lowell
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, USA.,Biomedical Sciences Program.,ImmunoX Program, and
| | - Adrian Erlebacher
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, California, USA.,Biomedical Sciences Program.,ImmunoX Program, and.,Center for Reproductive Sciences, UCSF, San Francisco, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Vanderhaeghen T, Vandewalle J, Libert C. Hypoxia-inducible factors in metabolic reprogramming during sepsis. FEBS J 2020; 287:1478-1495. [PMID: 31970890 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Sepsis is a highly heterogeneous syndrome that is caused by an imbalanced host response to infection. Despite huge investments, sepsis remains a contemporary threat with significant burden on health systems. Vascular dysfunction and elevated oxygen consumption by highly metabolically active immune cells result in tissue hypoxia during inflammation. The transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1a (HIF1α), and its family members, plays an important role in cellular metabolism and adaptation to cellular stress caused by hypoxia. In this review, we discuss the role of HIF in sepsis. We show possible mechanisms by which the inflammatory response activated during sepsis affects the HIF pathway. The activated HIF pathway in turn changes the metabolism of both innate and adaptive immune cells. As HIF expression in leukocytes of septic patients can be directly linked with mortality, we discuss multiple ways of interfering with the HIF signaling pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tineke Vanderhaeghen
- Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Jolien Vandewalle
- Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Claude Libert
- Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Talla U, Bozonet SM, Parker HA, Hampton MB, Vissers MCM. Prolonged exposure to hypoxia induces an autophagy-like cell survival program in human neutrophils. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 106:1367-1379. [PMID: 31412152 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.4a0319-079rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils contribute to low oxygen availability at inflammatory sites through the generation of reactive oxidants. They are also functionally affected by hypoxia, which delays neutrophil apoptosis. However, the eventual fate of neutrophils in hypoxic conditions is unknown and this is important for their effective clearance and the resolution of inflammation. We have monitored the survival and function of normal human neutrophils exposed to hypoxia over a 48 h period. Apoptosis was delayed, and the cells remained intact even at 48 h. However, hypoxia promoted significant changes in neutrophil morphology with the appearance of many new cytoplasmic vesicles, often containing cell material, within 5 hours of exposure to low O2 . This coincided with an increase in LC3B-II expression, indicative of autophagosome formation and an autophagy-like process. In hypoxic conditions, neutrophils preferentially lost myeloperoxidase, a marker of azurophil granules. Short-term (2 h) hypoxic exposure resulted in sustained potential to generate superoxide when O2 was restored, but the capacity for oxidant production was lost with longer periods of hypoxia. Phagocytic ability was unchanged by hypoxia, and bacterial killing by neutrophils in both normoxic and hypoxic conditions was substantially diminished after 24 hours. However, pre-exposure to hypoxia resulted in an enhanced ability to kill bacteria by oxidant-independent mechanisms. Our data provide the first evidence for hypoxia as a driver of neutrophil autophagy that can influence the function and ultimate fate of these cells, including their eventual clearance and the resolution of inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Usharani Talla
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Stephanie M Bozonet
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Heather A Parker
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Mark B Hampton
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Margreet C M Vissers
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite broad literature including basic and translational scientific studies, many gaps in our understanding of host-pathogen interactions remain. In this review, pathogen virulence factors that drive lung infection and injury are discussed in relation to their associated host immune pathways. CAP epidemiology is considered, with a focus on Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae as primary pathogens. Bacterial factors involved in nasal colonization and subsequent virulence are illuminated. A particular emphasis is placed on bacterial pore-forming toxins, host cell death, and inflammasome activation. Identified host-pathogen interactions are then examined by linking pathogen factors to aberrant host response pathways in the context of acute lung injury in both primary and secondary infection. While much is known regarding bacterial virulence and host immune responses, CAP management is still limited to mostly supportive care. It is likely that improvements in therapy will be derived from combinatorial targeting of both pathogen virulence factors and host immunomodulation.
Collapse
|
9
|
Keeley TP, Mann GE. Defining Physiological Normoxia for Improved Translation of Cell Physiology to Animal Models and Humans. Physiol Rev 2019; 99:161-234. [PMID: 30354965 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00041.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The extensive oxygen gradient between the air we breathe (Po2 ~21 kPa) and its ultimate distribution within mitochondria (as low as ~0.5-1 kPa) is testament to the efforts expended in limiting its inherent toxicity. It has long been recognized that cell culture undertaken under room air conditions falls short of replicating this protection in vitro. Despite this, difficulty in accurately determining the appropriate O2 levels in which to culture cells, coupled with a lack of the technology to replicate and maintain a physiological O2 environment in vitro, has hindered addressing this issue thus far. In this review, we aim to address the current understanding of tissue Po2 distribution in vivo and summarize the attempts made to replicate these conditions in vitro. The state-of-the-art techniques employed to accurately determine O2 levels, as well as the issues associated with reproducing physiological O2 levels in vitro, are also critically reviewed. We aim to provide the framework for researchers to undertake cell culture under O2 levels relevant to specific tissues and organs. We envisage that this review will facilitate a paradigm shift, enabling translation of findings under physiological conditions in vitro to disease pathology and the design of novel therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas P Keeley
- King's British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, School of Cardiovascular Medicine and Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London , London , United Kingdom
| | - Giovanni E Mann
- King's British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, School of Cardiovascular Medicine and Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London , London , United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
SenGupta S, Subramanian BC, Parent CA. Getting TANned: How the tumor microenvironment drives neutrophil recruitment. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 105:449-462. [PMID: 30549315 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3ri0718-282r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The directed migration of neutrophils to sites of injury or infection is mediated by complex networks of chemoattractant-receptor signaling cascades. The recent appreciation of neutrophils as active participants in tumor progression and metastasis has drawn attention to a number of chemokine-receptor systems that may drive their recruitment to tumors. However, the dynamic nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME) along with the phenotypic diversity among tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) call for a more comprehensive approach to understand neutrophil trafficking to tumors. Here, we review recent advances in understanding how guidance cues underlie neutrophil migration to primary and secondary tumor sites. We also discuss how the presence of other myeloid cells, such as functionally diverse subsets of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), can further influence neutrophil accumulation in tumors. Finally, we highlight the importance of hypoxia sensing in localizing TAMs and TANs in the tumor niche and provide a cohesive view on how both myeloid cell types shape TME-associated extracellular matrix organization, which in turn contribute to tumor progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuvasree SenGupta
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Bhagawat C Subramanian
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Carole A Parent
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Schatz V, Neubert P, Rieger F, Jantsch J. Hypoxia, Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α, and Innate Antileishmanial Immune Responses. Front Immunol 2018. [PMID: 29520262 PMCID: PMC5827161 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Low oxygen environments and accumulation of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) are features of infected and inflamed tissues. Here, we summarize our current knowledge on oxygen levels found in Leishmania-infected tissues and discuss which mechanisms potentially contribute to local tissue oxygenation in leishmanial lesions. Moreover, we review the role of hypoxia and HIF-1 on innate antileishmanial immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Schatz
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Regensburg, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Patrick Neubert
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Regensburg, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Franz Rieger
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Regensburg, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jonathan Jantsch
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Regensburg, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy augments tobramycin efficacy in experimental Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2017; 50:406-412. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
13
|
Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, DeLeo FR. Influence of Microbes on Neutrophil Life and Death. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:159. [PMID: 28507953 PMCID: PMC5410578 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocyte in humans and they are among the first white cells recruited to infected tissues. These leukocytes are essential for the innate immune response to bacteria and fungi. Inasmuch as neutrophils produce or contain potent microbicides that can be toxic to the host, neutrophil turnover and homeostasis is a highly regulated process that prevents unintended host tissue damage. Indeed, constitutive neutrophil apoptosis and subsequent removal of these cells by mononuclear phagocytes is a primary means by which neutrophil homeostasis is maintained in healthy individuals. Processes that alter normal neutrophil turnover and removal of effete cells can lead to host tissue damage and disease. The interaction of neutrophils with microbes and molecules produced by microbes often alters neutrophil turnover. The ability of microbes to alter the fate of neutrophils is highly varied, can be microbe-specific, and ranges from prolonging the neutrophil lifespan to causing rapid neutrophil lysis after phagocytosis. Here we provide a brief overview of these processes and their associated impact on innate host defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott D Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthHamilton, MT, USA
| | - Natalia Malachowa
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthHamilton, MT, USA
| | - Frank R DeLeo
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthHamilton, MT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Walmsley SR, Rupp J. Hypoxia and host pathogen responses. Microbes Infect 2017; 19:143. [PMID: 28115212 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2017.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Walmsley
- MRC/University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
| | - Jan Rupp
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| |
Collapse
|