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Liu W, He P, Shi X, Zhang Y, Perez-Moreno J, Yu F. Large-Scale Field Cultivation of Morchella and Relevance of Basic Knowledge for Its Steady Production. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:855. [PMID: 37623626 PMCID: PMC10455658 DOI: 10.3390/jof9080855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Morels are one of the most highly prized edible and medicinal mushrooms worldwide. Therefore, historically, there has been a large international interest in their cultivation. Numerous ecological, physiological, genetic, taxonomic, and mycochemical studies have been previously developed. At the beginning of this century, China finally achieved artificial cultivation and started a high-scale commercial development in 2012. Due to its international interest, its cultivation scale and area expanded rapidly in this country. However, along with the massive industrial scale, a number of challenges, including the maintenance of steady economic profits, arise. In order to contribute to the solution of these challenges, formal research studying selection, species recognition, strain aging, mating type structure, life cycle, nutrient metabolism, growth and development, and multi-omics has recently been boosted. This paper focuses on discussing current morel cultivation technologies, the industrial status of cultivation in China, and the relevance of basic biological research, including, e.g., the study of strain characteristics, species breeding, mating type structure, and microbial interactions. The main challenges related to the morel cultivation industry on a large scale are also analyzed. It is expected that this review will promote a steady global development of the morel industry based on permanent and robust basic scientific knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- The Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (W.L.); (X.S.)
| | - Peixin He
- College of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou 450002, China;
| | - Xiaofei Shi
- The Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (W.L.); (X.S.)
| | - Ya Zhang
- Sichuan Junyinong Agricultural Technology Co., Ltd., Chengdu 610023, China;
| | - Jesus Perez-Moreno
- Edafologia, Campus Montecillo, Colegio de Postgraduados, Texcoco 56230, Mexico
| | - Fuqiang Yu
- The Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (W.L.); (X.S.)
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Li X, Fu T, Li H, Zhang B, Li W, Zhang B, Wang X, Wang J, Chen Q, He X, Chen H, Zhang Q, Zhang Y, Yang R, Peng Y. Safe Production Strategies for Soil-Covered Cultivation of Morel in Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:765. [PMID: 37504753 PMCID: PMC10381497 DOI: 10.3390/jof9070765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Morel is a popular edible mushroom with considerable medicinal and economic value which has garnered global popularity. However, the increasing heavy metal (HM) pollution in the soil presents a significant challenge to morels cultivation. Given the susceptibility of morels to HM accumulation, the quality and output of morels are at risk, posing a serious food safety concern that hinders the development of the morel industry. Nonetheless, research on the mechanism of HM enrichment and mitigation strategies in morel remains scarce. The morel, being cultivated in soil, shows a positive correlation between HM content in its fruiting body and the HM content in the soil. Therefore, soil remediation emerges as the most practical and effective approach to tackle HM pollution. Compared to physical and chemical remediation, bioremediation is a low-cost and eco-friendly approach that poses minimal threats to soil composition and structure. HMs easily enriched during morels cultivation were examined, including Cd, Cu, Hg, and Pb, and we assessed soil passivation technology, microbial remediation, strain screening and cultivation, and agronomic measures as potential approaches for HM pollution prevention. The current review underscores the importance of establishing a comprehensive system for preventing HM pollution in morels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Li
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563006, China
- Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guiyang 550006, China
| | - Tianhong Fu
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563006, China
- Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guiyang 550006, China
| | - Hongzhao Li
- Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 258000, China
- Key Laboratory for New Technology Research of Vegetable, Vegetable Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Bangxi Zhang
- Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guiyang 550006, China
| | - Wendi Li
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563006, China
| | - Baige Zhang
- Key Laboratory for New Technology Research of Vegetable, Vegetable Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xiaomin Wang
- Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guiyang 550006, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Qiandongnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kaili 556000, China
| | - Qing Chen
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xuehan He
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Hao Chen
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Qinyu Zhang
- Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guiyang 550006, China
| | - Yujin Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563006, China
| | - Rende Yang
- Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guiyang 550006, China
| | - Yutao Peng
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
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Li Y, Chen H, Zhang X. Cultivation, nutritional value, bioactive compounds of morels, and their health benefits: A systematic review. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1159029. [PMID: 37006947 PMCID: PMC10063854 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1159029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Morels are valuable mushrooms being used as foods and medical substances for a long history. The commonly cultivated morel species include M. eximia, M. importuna, and M. sextelata in China, M. conica and M. esculenta in the US. Morels' nutritional profile mainly consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and organic acids, which are also responsible for its complex sensory attributes and health benefits. The bioactive compounds in morels including polysaccharides, phenolics, tocopherols, and ergosterols contribute to the anti-oxidative abilities, anti-inflammation, immunoprotection, gut health preservation, and anti-cancer abilities. This review depicted on the cultivation of morels, major bioactive compounds of different morel species both from fruit bodies and mycelia, and their health benefits to provide a comprehensive understanding of morels and support the future research and applications of morels as high-value functional food sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yitong Li
- Bannerbio Nutraceuticals Inc., Shenzhen, China
| | - Hongyu Chen
- National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Key Laboratory of Applied Mycological Resources and Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xi Zhang
- Bannerbio Nutraceuticals Inc., Shenzhen, China
- *Correspondence: Xi Zhang
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Ultrastructure and Physiological Characterization of Morchella Mitospores and Their Relevance in the Understanding of the Morel Life Cycle. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020345. [PMID: 36838309 PMCID: PMC9960803 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Morels, which belong to the Ascomycete genus Morchella, are highly valued edible fungi treasured by gourmet chefs worldwide. Some species are saprotrophic and others are able to form facultative mycorrhizal-like associations with plant roots without establishing true ectomycorrhizal symbioses. In general, it is considered that the formation of asexual spores, or mitospores, is an important step in the life cycle of morels. However, ultrastructure characterization and physiological attributes of morel mitospores have received little attention. In this contribution, the mitospores of M. sextelata were successfully induced under laboratory conditions and their ultrastructure, occurrence, germination, physiological characteristics and mating type gene structure were studied. Mitospore production was closely related to aeration, nutrition and humidity conditions. The average germination rate of mitospores on different media and under various induction stimuli was very low, with an average of 1/100,000. Based on the ultrastructure characterization, low germination rate, growth rate decline, rapid aging and mating genotyping, it was concluded that the mitospores of M. sextelata had lost their conventional function as conidia and might act more as mate sperm-like (gamete) structures. Thus, this study contributed to a deeper understanding of the life cycle of the economically and ecologically important morel fungal group.
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Zhang Q, Shu F, Chen X, Liu W, Bian Y, Kang H. Construction of nucleus-directed fluorescent reporter systems and its application to verification of heterokaryon formation in Morchella importuna. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1051013. [PMID: 36478869 PMCID: PMC9720127 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1051013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Morchella importuna (M. importuna) is a rare fungus with high nutrition value and distinct flavor. Despite the successful artificial cultivation, its genetic characteristics and biological processes such as life cycle, reproductive system, and trophic mode remain poorly understood. METHODS Considering this, we constructed pEH2B and pMH2B vectors by fusing M. importuna endogenous histone protein H2B with fluorescent proteins eGFP or mCherry, respectively. Based on the constructed pEH2B and pMH2B vectors, nuclear fluorescence localization was performed via Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT). These two vectors were both driven by two endogenous promoters glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) and ubiquitin (UBI). The vector-based reporter systems were tested by the paired culture of two genetically modified strains pEH2B-labeled M04M24 (24e, MAT1-1-1) and pMH2B-abeled M04M26 (26m, MAT1-2-1). RESULTS The fluorescence observation and molecular identification results indicated the successful hyphal fusion and heterokaryon formation. We found that the expression of the reporter genes was stable, and it did not interfere with the growth of the fungus. DISCUSSION Our constructed nucleus-directed fluorescent systems in M. importuna can be used for monitoring the dynamic development and reproductive processes in living cells and also for monitoring the interaction between morels and plant roots. Therefore, morels exhibit the potential to be a candidate organism used for the research on basic biology and genetics of ascomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Zhang
- Institute of Applied Mycology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Shu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Xin Chen
- Institute of Applied Mycology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Yinbing Bian
- Institute of Applied Mycology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Heng Kang
- Institute of Applied Mycology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
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Deng K, Lan X, Chen Y, Wang T, Li M, Xu Y, Cao X, Xie G, Xie L. Integration of Transcriptomics and Metabolomics for Understanding the Different Vegetative Growth in Morchella Sextelata. Front Genet 2022; 12:829379. [PMID: 35186020 PMCID: PMC8854800 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.829379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Morchella sextelata is an edible and medicinal fungus with high nutritional, medicinal, and economic value. Recently, M. sextelata has been produced through artificial cultivation in China, but its stable production remains problematic because the details of its growth and development process are limitedly understood. Herein, to investigate the dynamic process of M. sextelata development, we integrated the transcriptomics and metabolomics data of M. sextelata from three developmental stages: the young mushroom period (YMP), marketable mature period (MMP), and physiological maturity period (PMP). The results showed that the transcriptome changed dynamically at different stages and demonstrated the significant enrichment of pathways that regulate plant growth and development, such as N-glycan biosynthesis and carbon and purine metabolism. Similarly, small-molecule metabolites, such as D-fructose-1,6-biphosphate, which was upregulated during the YMP, dihydromyricetin, which was upregulated during the MMP, and L-citrulline, which was upregulated during the PMP, also showed phase-dependent characteristics. Then, combined analysis of the transcriptome data and metabolome traits revealed that the transcriptome may affect metabolic molecules during different growth stages of M. sextelata via specific enzymes, such as α-glucosidase and glucanase, which were included in two opposite transcriptome modules. In summary, this integration of transcriptomics and metabolomics data for understanding the vegetative growth of M. sextelata during different developmental stages implicated several key genes, metabolites, and pathways involved in the vegetative growth. We believe that these findings will provide comprehensive insights into the dynamic process of growth and development in M. sextelata and new clues for optimizing the methods for its cultivation application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kejun Deng
- School of Life Science and Technology, Center for Informational Biology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Kejun Deng, ; Liyuan Xie,
| | - Xiuhua Lan
- School of Life Science and Technology, Center for Informational Biology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
- Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Ting Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Center for Informational Biology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Mengke Li
- School of Life Science and Technology, Center for Informational Biology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Yingyin Xu
- Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuelian Cao
- Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Guangbo Xie
- School of Life Science and Technology, Center for Informational Biology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Liyuan Xie
- Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Kejun Deng, ; Liyuan Xie,
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Peng D, Wen Y, Bi S, Huang C, Yang J, Guo Z, Huang W, Zhu J, Yu R, Song L. A new GlcNAc-containing polysaccharide from Morchella importuna fruiting bodies: Structural characterization and immunomodulatory activities in vitro and in vivo. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 192:1134-1149. [PMID: 34656541 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the purification and characterization of a new immunomodulatory GlcNAc-containing polysaccharide (MIPB70-1) from Morchella importuna with molecular weights of 20.6 kDa. Structural analysis indicated that MIPB70-1 was composed of GlcNAc:Gal:Glc:Man with molar ratios of 1.00:7.16:5.54:5.61, and its primary structure was characterized as a repeating unit consisting of →6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, α-D-GlcpNAc-(1→, α-D-Galp-(1→, β-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →4)-α-D-GlcpNAc-(1→, →4)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →3,6)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →2)-α-D-Galp-(1→, →2,3,6)-α-D-Manp-(1→. Immunological assays indicated that MIPB70-1 enhanced the phagocytic function and promoted the secretion of nitric oxide (NO) as well as cytokines through targeting Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on macrophage membrane and activating the downstream signaling pathways in RAW 264.7 cells. MIPB70-1 regulated mouse immunity to counteract the immune damage caused by the chemotherapy drug cyclophosphamide (CTX) in vivo. Furthermore, MIPB70-1 enhanced the anti-tumor activity of doxorubicin (DOX) and inhibited the growth of tumors, by immunomodulation in the orthotopic murine model of 4T1 breast cancer. These results demonstrate the potential of this GlcNAc-containing polysaccharide as an immune enhancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Peng
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Yao Wen
- Biotechnological Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Sixue Bi
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Chunhua Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jianing Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Zhongyi Guo
- Biotechnological Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Weijuan Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jianhua Zhu
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China.
| | - Rongmin Yu
- Biotechnological Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China; Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China.
| | - Liyan Song
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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Abstract
True morels (Morchella spp., Morchellaceae, Ascomycota) are widely regarded as a highly prized delicacy and are of great economic and scientific value. Recently, the rapid development of cultivation technology and expansion of areas for artificial morel cultivation have propelled morel research into a hot topic. Many studies have been conducted in various aspects of morel biology, but despite this, cultivation sites still frequently report failure to fruit or only low production of fruiting bodies. Key problems include the gap between cultivation practices and basic knowledge of morel biology. In this review, in an effort to highlight the mating systems, evolution, and life cycle of morels, we summarize the current state of knowledge of morel sexual reproduction, the structure and evolution of mating-type genes, the sexual process itself, and the influence of mating-type genes on the asexual stages and conidium production. Understanding of these processes is critical for improving technology for the cultivation of morels and for scaling up their commercial production. Morel species may well be good candidates as model species for improving sexual development research in ascomycetes in the future.
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9
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Wen Y, Bi S, Hu X, Yang J, Li C, Li H, Yu DB, Zhu J, Song L, Yu R. Structural characterization and immunomodulatory mechanisms of two novel glucans from Morchella importuna fruiting bodies. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 183:145-157. [PMID: 33878360 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Two novel glucans named MIPB50-W and MIPB50-S-1 were obtained from edible Morchella importuna with molecular weights (Mw) of 939.2 kDa and 444.5 kDa, respectively. MIPB50-W has a backbone of α-(1 → 4)-d-glucan, which was substituted at O-6 position by α-d-Glcp-(1→. Moreover, MIPB50-S-1 has a backbone of α-(1 → 4)-d-glucan, which was substituted at O-6 position by α-d-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→. This is the first report about glucan found in Morchella mushrooms. Furthermore, MIPB50-W and MIPB50-S-1 strengthened the phagocytosis function and the promoted secretion of interleukins (IL)-6/tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and nitric oxide (NO), which induced the activation of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4 as well as mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways. Interestingly, MIPB50-S-1 performed the better immunomodulatory activity than that of MIPB50-W in almost all tests. Therefore, MIPB50-W and MIPB50-S-1 are potential immune-enhancing components of functional foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wen
- Biotechnological Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China; School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Sixue Bi
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xianjing Hu
- Department of Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jianing Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Chunlei Li
- Biotechnological Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Hang Li
- Department of Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Dong Bo Yu
- Department of Cardiovascular Care, ThedaCare Regional Medical Center, Appleton, WI, USA
| | - Jianhua Zhu
- Department of Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China.
| | - Liyan Song
- Department of Pharmacology, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China.
| | - Rongmin Yu
- Biotechnological Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China; Department of Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpu Avenue West, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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10
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Sambyal K, Singh RV. A comprehensive review on Morchella importuna: cultivation aspects, phytochemistry, and other significant applications. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2021; 66:147-157. [PMID: 33464471 DOI: 10.1007/s12223-020-00849-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Morchella importuna is one of the most highly priced edible mushrooms and a rich source of bioactive substances with numerous beneficial medicinal properties. It has been artificially cultivated in the last few years but due to the unclear mechanism of its fruiting body formation, the stable production has not been achieved yet. This review aims to provide the detailed information about the current research status of the indoor and outdoor cultivation and significant applications of M. importuna worldwide with a vision to know more about its potential therapeutic index and edible values. It will provide the basis of better understanding about the need to develop biotechnological processes for morel farming under controlled conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishika Sambyal
- University Institute of Biotechnology, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab, India
| | - Rahul Vikram Singh
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), 201002, Ghaziabad, India.
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11
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Wang X, Peng J, Sun L, Bonito G, Guo Y, Li Y, Fu Y. Genome Sequencing of Paecilomyces Penicillatus Provides Insights into Its Phylogenetic Placement and Mycoparasitism Mechanisms on Morel Mushrooms. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9100834. [PMID: 33065983 PMCID: PMC7650745 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9100834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Morels (Morchella spp.) are popular edible fungi with significant economic and scientific value. However, white mold disease, caused by Paecilomyces penicillatus, can reduce morel yield by up to 80% in the main cultivation area in China. Paecilomyces is a polyphyletic genus and the exact phylogenetic placement of P. penicillatus is currently still unclear. Here, we obtained the first high-quality genome sequence of P. penicillatus generated through the single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing platform. The assembled draft genome of P. penicillatus was 40.2 Mb, had an N50 value of 2.6 Mb and encoded 9454 genes. Phylogenetic analysis of single-copy orthologous genes revealed that P. penicillatus is in Hypocreales and closely related to Hypocreaceae, which includes several genera exhibiting a mycoparasitic lifestyle. CAZymes analysis demonstrated that P. penicillatus encodes a large number of fungal cell wall degradation enzymes. We identified many gene clusters involved in the production of secondary metabolites known to exhibit antifungal, antibacterial, or insecticidal activities. We further demonstrated through dual culture assays that P. penicillatus secretes certain soluble compounds that are inhibitory to the mycelial growth of Morchella sextelata. This study provides insights into the correct phylogenetic placement of P. penicillatus and the molecular mechanisms that underlie P. penicillatus pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Wang
- Department of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China;
- Engineering Research Center of Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (L.S.); (Y.L.)
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48842, USA; (J.P.); (G.B.)
| | - Jingyu Peng
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48842, USA; (J.P.); (G.B.)
| | - Lei Sun
- Engineering Research Center of Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (L.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Gregory Bonito
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48842, USA; (J.P.); (G.B.)
| | - Yuxiu Guo
- Life Science College, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130118, China;
| | - Yu Li
- Department of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China;
- Engineering Research Center of Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (L.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yongping Fu
- Engineering Research Center of Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; (L.S.); (Y.L.)
- Correspondence:
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12
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He P, Yu M, Wang K, Cai Y, Li B, Liu W. Interspecific hybridization between cultivated morels Morchella importuna and Morchella sextelata by PEG-induced double inactivated protoplast fusion. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 36:58. [PMID: 32236741 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-020-02835-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The commercial production of Morchella mushrooms calls for urgent breeding of excellent varieties or strains with appropriate tools, such as protoplast fusion. However, the protoplast fusion in morels has not been studied. In this paper, interspecific hybridization between cultivated morels of M. importuna and M. sextelata by PEG-induced protoplast fusion was conducted. Apart from functional complementation of double inactivated protoplasts, the fusants were characterized by cultural and cultivated characters and molecular markers of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). The results suggested that the hybrids and their parents showed significant difference in their inoculum recovery time, mycelial growth rate, yield of cultivation and total amino acid content of ascocarps. Moreover, positive barrage reactions were observed between parental strains as well as between each parent and a hybrid line. A dendrogram created on the basis of RAPD fingerprints exhibited three major clusters, in which morel hybrids showed intra-cluster variations, M. sextelata #6 formed an out group, while M. importuna #4 was phylogenetically closer to morel hybrids. All the results demonstrated that real fusants were obtained in our study. Protoplast fusion may provide an ideal alternative for new strain selection, and thus will promote the healthy development of morel industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peixin He
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Miao Yu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Ke Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Yingli Cai
- Institute of Vegetable, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Bin Li
- Zhengzhou Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, Zhengzhou, 450005, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
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13
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Liu W, Cai Y, Zhang Q, Shu F, Chen L, Ma X, Bian Y. Subchromosome-Scale Nuclear and Complete Mitochondrial Genome Characteristics of Morchella crassipes. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E483. [PMID: 31940908 PMCID: PMC7014384 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Morchella crassipes (Vent.) Pers., a typical yellow morel species with high economic value, is mainly distributed in the low altitude plains of Eurasia. However, rare research has been performed on its genomics and polarity, thus limiting its research and development. Here, we reported a fine physical map of the nuclear genome at the subchromosomal-scale and the complete mitochondrial genome of M. crassipes. The complete size of the nuclear genome was 56.7 Mb, and 23 scaffolds were assembled, with eight of them being complete chromosomes. A total of 11,565 encoding proteins were predicted. The divergence time analysis showed that M. crassipes representing yellow morels differentiated with black morels at ~33.98 Mya (million years), with 150 gene families contracted and expanded in M. crassipes versus the two black morels (M. snyderi and M. importuna). Furthermore, 409 CAZYme genes were annotated in M. crassipes, containing almost all plant cell wall degrading enzymes compared with the mycorrhizal fungi (truffles). Genomic annotation of mating type loci and amplification of the mating genes in the monospore population was conducted, the results indicated that M. crassipes is a heterothallic fungus. Additionally, a complete circular mitochondrial genome of M. crassipes was assembled, the size reached as large as 531,195 bp. It can be observed that the strikingly large size was the biggest up till now, coupled with 14 core conserved mitochondrial protein-coding genes, two rRNAs, 31 tRNAs, 51 introns, and 412 ncORFs. The total length of intron sequences accounted for 53.67% of the mitochondrial genome, with 19 introns having a length over 5 kb. Particularly, 221 of 412 ncORFs were distributed within 51 introns, and the total length of the ncORFs sequence accounted for 40.83% of the mitochondrial genome, and 297 ncORFs had expression activity in the mycelium stage, suggesting their potential functions in M. crassipes. Meanwhile, there was a high degree of repetition (51.31%) in the mitochondria of M. crassipes. Thus, the large number of introns, ncORFs and internal repeat sequences may contribute jointly to the largest fungal mitochondrial genome to date. The fine physical maps of nuclear genome and mitochondrial genome obtained in this study will open a new door for better understanding of the mysterious species of M. crassipes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (F.S.); (L.C.)
| | - Yingli Cai
- Institute of Vegetable, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430070, China; (Y.C.); (X.M.)
| | - Qianqian Zhang
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (F.S.); (L.C.)
| | - Fang Shu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (F.S.); (L.C.)
| | - Lianfu Chen
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (F.S.); (L.C.)
| | - Xiaolong Ma
- Institute of Vegetable, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430070, China; (Y.C.); (X.M.)
| | - Yinbing Bian
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (F.S.); (L.C.)
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Mei-Han, Qingshan-Wang, Baiyintala, Wuhanqimuge. The whole-genome sequence analysis of Morchella sextelata. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15376. [PMID: 31653932 PMCID: PMC6814724 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51831-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Morchella are macrofungi and are also called morels, as they exhibit a morel-like upper cap structure. Morels contain abundant essential amino acids, vitamins and biologically active compounds, which provide substantial health benefits. Approximately 80 species of Morchella have been reported, and even more species have been isolated. However, the lack of wild Morchella resources and the difficulties associated with culturing Morchella have caused a shortage in the morels available for daily consumption. Additionally, in-depth genomic and morphological studies are still needed. In this study, to provide genomic data for further investigations of culturing techniques and the biological functions of Morchella sextelata (M. sextelata), de novo genome sequencing was carried out on the Illumina HiSeq. 4000 platform using both the Illumina 150 and PacBio systems. The final estimated genome size of M. sextelata was 52.93 Mb, containing 59 contigs and a GC content of 47.37%. A total of 9,550 protein-coding genes were annotated. In addition, the repeat sequences, gene components and gene functions were analyzed using various databases. Furthermore, the secondary metabolite gene clusters and the predicted structures of their products were analyzed. Finally, a genomic comparison of different species of Morchella was performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Han
- Inner Mongolia ZhongXing Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Development Co., Ltd., Ulanqab, China
| | - Qingshan-Wang
- Inner Mongolia ZhongXing Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Development Co., Ltd., Ulanqab, China
| | - Baiyintala
- Inner Mongolia Mang Lai Food Co., Ltd., Hohhot, China
| | - Wuhanqimuge
- Innovative Mongolian Pharmaceutical Preparations Laboratory of Inner Mongolia, Inner Mongolia International Mongolian Hospital, Hohhot, China.
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15
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Wen Y, Peng D, Li C, Hu X, Bi S, Song L, Peng B, Zhu J, Chen Y, Yu R. A new polysaccharide isolated from Morchella importuna fruiting bodies and its immunoregulatory mechanism. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 137:8-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.06.171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Chai H, Chen W, Zhang X, Su K, Zhao Y. Structural variation and phylogenetic analysis of the mating-type locus in the genus Morchella. Mycologia 2019; 111:551-562. [DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2019.1628553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Chai
- Institute of Biotechnology and Germplasm Resources, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan, China
| | - Weimin Chen
- Institute of Biotechnology and Germplasm Resources, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan, China
| | - Xiaolei Zhang
- Institute of Biotechnology and Germplasm Resources, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan, China
| | - Kaimei Su
- Institute of Biotechnology and Germplasm Resources, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan, China
| | - Yongchang Zhao
- Institute of Biotechnology and Germplasm Resources, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan, China
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Liu W, Cai Y, He P, Chen L, Bian Y. Comparative transcriptomics reveals potential genes involved in the vegetative growth of Morchella importuna. 3 Biotech 2019; 9:81. [PMID: 30800592 PMCID: PMC6374242 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-019-1614-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
True morels (Morchella spp.) are edible, medicinal mushrooms which have recently been artificially cultivated in China but stable production remains a problem. Here, we describe complete and comprehensive transcriptome of Morchella importuna at the stages of vegetative mycelium (VM), initial sclerotium (IS) and mature sclerotium (MS) by deep transcriptional sequencing and de novo assembly for the first time and which will potentially provide useful information for improving its cultivation. A total of 26,496 genes were identified with a contig N50 length of 1763 bp and an average length of over 1064 bp. Additionally, 11,957 open reading frames (ORFs) were predicted and 9676 of them (80.9%) were annotated. The 2605 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified by gene expression clustering were mainly involved with energy metabolism and could be divided into three broad clusters, of which genes in cluster_1 and cluster_2 were involved in the metabolic process of carbohydrate, polysaccharide, hydrolase, caprolactam, beta-galactosidase, and disaccharide, respectively. Genes in cluster_3 were the largest category, mainly identified with the catalytic activity and transporter activity. Overall, the enzymes involved in the carbohydrate metabolism were highly expressed, and the CAZyme (carbohydrate-active enzyme) genes were significantly expressed within cluster_3. For expression verification, 16 CAZYme genes were selected for qRT-PCR, and the results suggested that the catabolism of carbohydrates occurs mainly in the vegetative mycelium stage, and the anabolism of the energy-rich substances is the main event of mycelial growth and sclerotial morphogenesis of M. importuna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, Hubei China
| | - Yingli Cai
- Institute of Vegetable, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 430070 Wuhan, China
| | - Peixin He
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, 450001 Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lianfu Chen
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, Hubei China
| | - Yinbing Bian
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Wuhan, Hubei China
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Validation of Internal Control Genes for Quantitative Real-Time PCR Gene Expression Analysis in Morchella. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23092331. [PMID: 30213125 PMCID: PMC6225436 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23092331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The reliability of qRT-PCR results depend on the stability of reference genes used for normalization, suggesting the necessity of identification of reference genes before gene expression analysis. Morels are edible mushrooms well-known across the world and highly prized by many culinary kitchens. Here, several candidate genes were selected and designed according to the Morchella importuna transcriptome data. The stability of the candidate genes was evaluated with geNorm and NormFinder under three different experimental conditions, and several genes with excellent stability were selected. The extensive adaptability of the selected genes was tested in ten Morchella species. Results from the three experimental conditions revealed that ACT1 and INTF7 were the most prominent genes in Morchella, CYC3 was the most stable gene in different development stages, INTF4/AEF3 were the top-ranked genes across carbon sources, while INTF3/CYC3 pair showed the robust stability for temperature stress treatment. We suggest using ACT1, AEF3, CYC3, INTF3, INTF4 and INTF7 as reference genes for gene expression analysis studies for any of the 10 Morchella strains tested in this study. The stability and practicality of the gene, vacuolar protein sorting (INTF3), vacuolar ATP synthase (INTF4) and14-3-3 protein (INTF7) involving the basic biological processes were validated for the first time as the candidate reference genes for quantitative PCR. Furthermore, the stability of the reference genes was found to vary under the three different experimental conditions, indicating the importance of identifying specific reference genes for particular conditions.
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Liu W, Chen L, Cai Y, Zhang Q, Bian Y. Opposite Polarity Monospore Genome De Novo Sequencing and Comparative Analysis Reveal the Possible Heterothallic Life Cycle of Morchella importuna. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E2525. [PMID: 30149649 PMCID: PMC6164635 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19092525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Morchella is a popular edible fungus worldwide due to its rich nutrition and unique flavor. Many research efforts were made on the domestication and cultivation of Morchella all over the world. In recent years, the cultivation of Morchella was successfully commercialized in China. However, the biology is not well understood, which restricts the further development of the morel fungus cultivation industry. In this paper, we performed de novo sequencing and assembly of the genomes of two monospores with a different mating type (M04M24 and M04M26) isolated from the commercially cultivated strain M04. Gene annotation and comparative genome analysis were performed to study differences in CAZyme (Carbohydrate-active enzyme) enzyme content, transcription factors, duplicated sequences, structure of mating type sites, and differences at the gene and functional levels between the two monospore strains of M. importuna. Results showed that the de novo assembled haploid M04M24 and M04M26 genomes were 48.98 and 51.07 Mb, respectively. A complete fine physical map of M. importuna was obtained from genome coverage and gene completeness evaluation. A total of 10,852 and 10,902 common genes and 667 and 868 endemic genes were identified from the two monospore strains, respectively. The Gene Ontology (GO) and KAAS (KEGG Automatic Annotation Serve) enrichment analyses showed that the endemic genes performed different functions. The two monospore strains had 99.22% collinearity with each other, accompanied with certain position and rearrangement events. Analysis of complete mating-type loci revealed that the two monospore M. importuna strains contained an independent mating-type structure and remained conserved in sequence and location. The phylogenetic and divergence time of M. importuna was analyzed at the whole-genome level for the first time. The bifurcation time of morel and tuber was estimated to be 201.14 million years ago (Mya); the two monospore strains with a different mating type represented the evolution of different nuclei, and the single copy homologous genes between them were also different due to a genetic differentiation distance about 0.65 Mya. Compared with truffles, M. importuna had an extension of 28 clusters of orthologous genes (COGs) and a contraction of two COGs. The two different polar nuclei with different degrees of contraction and expansion suggested that they might have undergone different evolutionary processes. The different mating-type structures, together with the functional clustering and enrichment analysis results of the endemic genes of the two different polar nuclei, imply that M. importuna might be a heterothallic fungus and the interaction between the endemic genes may be necessary for its complete life history. Studies on the genome of M. importuna facilitate a better understanding of morel biology and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - LianFu Chen
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - YingLi Cai
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - QianQian Zhang
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - YinBing Bian
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Plant Science and Technology College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Microbial Resource Comprehensive Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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Involvement of autophagy and apoptosis and lipid accumulation in sclerotial morphogenesis of Morchella importuna. Micron 2018; 109:34-40. [PMID: 29614428 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotial formation is a key phase of the morel life cycle and lipids have been recorded as the main cytoplasmic reserves in sclerotia of Morchella fungi without any experimental verification. In this study, the ultrastructural features of the undifferentiated mycelia stage (MS) and three main sclerotial differentiation states (sclerotial initial [SI], sclerotial development [SD] and sclerotial maturation [SM]) were compared by transmission electron microscopy. The nature of the energy-rich substance in hypha and sclerotium of Morchella importuna was qualitatively investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy and quantitatively studied by extraction of lipids. Sclerotia were observed to form from the repeated branching and enlargement of either terminal hyphae or subordinate hyphal branches, indicating a complex type of sclerotial development. Autophagy and apoptosis were involved in the sclerotial metamorphosis of the cultivated strain of M. importuna. During the SI phase, the characteristic features of autophagy (vacuolation, coalescence of small vacuoles, existence of autophagosomes and engulfment of autophagosomes by vacuoles) were observed. At the SD phase, apoptotic characteristics (condensation of the cytoplasm and nucleus, shrinkage of plasma membrane, extensive plasma membrane blebbing and existence of phagosomes) could be seen in some developing sclerotial cells. In the final stage of sclerotial morphogensis, the sclerotial cells showed a necrotic mode of cell death. In addition, confocal laser imaging studies of live cells indicated that the energy-rich substance in morel hyphae and sclerotia was lipid. The lipid content in sclerotia was significantly more than that in hyphal cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first detailed ultrastructural description highlighting the involvement of autophagy and apoptosis in sclerotial metamorphosis of Morchella species and lipid accumulation during morel sclerotial development was also first experimentally verified. This work will promote a better understanding of the mechanism of morel sclerotial metamorphosis.
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