Death caps (Amanita phalloides) frequently establish from sexual spores, but individuals can grow large and live for more than a decade in invaded forests

Global change is reshaping Earth's biodiversity, but the changing distributions of nonpathogenic fungi remain largely undocumented, as do mechanisms enabling invasions. The ectomycorrhizal Amanita phalloides is native to Europe and invasive in North America. Using population genetics and genomics, we sought to describe the life history traits of this successfully invading symbiotic fungus. To test whether death caps spread underground using hyphae, or aboveground using sexual spores, we mapped and genotyped mushrooms from European and US sites. Larger genetic individuals (genets) would suggest spread mediated by vegetative growth, while many small genets would suggest dispersal mediated by spores. To test whether genets are ephemeral or persistent, we also sampled from populations over time. At nearly every site and across all time points, mushrooms resolve into small genets. Individuals frequently establish from sexual spores. But at one Californian site, a single individual measuring nearly 10 m across dominated. At two Californian sites, the same genetic individuals were discovered in 2004, 2014, and 2015, suggesting single individuals (both large and small) can reproduce repeatedly over relatively long timescales. A flexible life history strategy combining both mycelial growth and spore dispersal appears to underpin the invasion of this deadly perennial ectomycorrhizal fungus.

Savitreea siamensis sp. nov., an ascomycetous yeast species in the family Saccharomycetaceae discovered in Thailand

Four yeast strains, representing a novel anamorphic species, were isolated in Thailand. The two strains (ST-3660T and ST-3647) were obtained from two different estuarine water samples in a mangrove forest. Strain DMKU-FW1-37 was derived from a grease sample, and another strain (TSU57) was isolated from a fruiting body of Phallus sp. Pairwise sequence analysis showed that the four strains had identical or differed by only one nucleotide substitution in the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit (LSU) rRNA gene, and differed by one to three nucleotide substitutions in the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. Savitreea pentosicarens is the most closely related species to the four strains, but with 9-10 (1.57-1.72 %) nucleotide substitutions in the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene and 29-31 (4.22-4.45 %) nucleotide substitutions in the ITS regions. Phylogenetic analyses based on the concatenated sequences of the ITS regions and the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene showed that the four strains form a well-separated lineage from S. pentosicarens with high bootstrap support, confirming that they represent a distinct species. Therefore, the four strains are assigned as representives of a novel species of the genus Savitreea, for which the name Savitreea siamensis sp. nov. is proposed. The holotype is TBRC 4481T and the ex-type is PYCC 9794T (=ST-3660T). The MycoBank number of the novel species is MB 851951.

nov., a novel yeast species discovered in two mushroom species

Two yeast strains, designated as 19-39-3 and 19-40-2, obtained from the fruiting bodies of Trametes versicolor and Marasmius siccus collected in Yunwu Mountain Forest Park, PR China, have been identified as representing a novel asexual ascomycetous yeast species. From the results of phylogenetic analyses of the sequences of the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit (LSU) rRNA, small subunit (SSU) rRNA and translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1) genes, it was determined that these strains represent a member of the genus Wickerhamomyces, with Wickerhamomyces alni and Candida ulmi as the closest relatives. The novel species exhibited 6.6 and 6.7% differences in the D1/D2 domains compared with W. alni and C. ulmi, respectively. Additionally, distinct biochemical and physiological differences were observed between the novel species and its related counterparts. No sexual reproduction was observed in these strains, leading to the proposal of the name Wickerhamomyces corioli f.a., sp. nov. for this newly discovered species.

Homeodomain 1 Genes of the Different HD Subloci of Flammulina velutipes Can Activate the HD Pathway and Are Involved in Mating, Clamp Cell Formation, and Upregulation of FvClp1

Flammulina velutipes has two independent and functional mating type factors, HD and PR. The HD locus contains two separate subloci: HD-a and HD-b. In this study, we investigated the roles of Hd1 genes of the HD-a and HD-b subloci in the process of mating, clamp cell formation, and regulation of FvClp1 (F. velutipes clampless1 gene) gene expression in F. velutipes. To this end, we introduced Hd1 genes from mating compatible strains into F. velutipes monokaryon L11. Overexpression of Hd1 gene FvHd-a1-1 of the HD-a sublocus resulted in the formation of pseudoclamps in L11 monokaryons. L11 mutants overexpressing the Hd1 gene FvHd-b1-2 of the HD-b sublocus also similarly developed pseudoclamps in the L11 monokaryons. Moreover, these mutant L11 monokaryons produced complete clamps when crossed with monokaryotic strains that differed at the PR loci, i.e., when selective activation of the PR pathway was obtained through crossing. Thus, Hd1 genes of the two different HD subloci in F. velutipes can activate the HD mating type pathway and induce clamp cell formation. In addition, activation of the HD pathway resulted in upregulation of the FvClp1 gene. Finally, to complete clamp cell formation, activation of the PR pathway appears to be essential. Overall, these findings were beneficial for deepening our understanding of sexual reproduction and fruiting body development of edible fungi.

Inhibition of melanoma cell proliferation by strobilurins isolated from mushrooms and their synthetic analogues

Strobilurins A and X, isolated from Mucidula venosolamellata culture extracts, demonstrated potent inhibition of human melanoma G-361 cell proliferation. Strobilurin X exhibited milder inhibitory effects on human fibroblast cells (NB1RGB) compared to strobilurin A. Additional strobilurin-related compounds were isolated from the other mushroom species. Oudemansins A and B displayed weaker activities on G-361 cells than strobilurins A and B, respectively, emphasizing the importance of a conjugated double-bond structure. Among isolated compounds, strobilurin G showed the lowest IC50 value for G-361 cells. Additional strobilurins bearing various substituents on the benzene ring were synthesized. Synthetic intermediates lacking the methyl β-methoxyacrylate group and a strobilurin analogue bearing modified β-methoxyacrylate moiety showed almost no inhibitory activity against G-361 cells. The introduction of long or bulky substituents at the 4' position of the benzene ring of strobilurins enhanced the activity and selectivity, suggesting differential recognition of the benzene ring by G-361 and NB1RGB cells.

Triple quadrupole liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-mediated evaluation of vitamin D2 accumulation potential, antioxidant capacities, and total polyphenol content of white jelly mushroom (Tremella fuciformis Berk.)

Tremella fuciformis Berk. (TF), or the white jelly mushroom, is well known for its myriad of pharmacological properties, such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antitumor, and antioxidant activities, and hypocholesterolemic and hepatoprotective effects that boost human health. Most of the studies of TF are concentrated on its polysaccharide (glucuronoxylomannan) composition, which is responsible for its pharmacological as well as rheological properties. It is well established that mushrooms are a great source of dietary vitamin D due to the presence of ergosterol in their cell membrane. There is a lack of published data on TF as a source of vitamin D2. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the vitamin D2 composition of the fruiting bodies of TF using triple quadrupole liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/QQQ). The results showed highest vitamin D2 content (292.02 µg/g dry weight) in the sample irradiated with ultraviolet B (UVB; 310 nm) for 180 min as compared with the control group (52.47 µg/g dry weight) (P ≤ 0.001). The results showed higher accumulation potential of vitamin D2 in TF as compared with published data available for other extensively studied culinary mushrooms, such as Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Cordiceps militaris, and Calocybe indica. Moreover, the impact of UV treatment on antioxidant capacities and total polyphenol content of TF was also studied. The accumulation potential of vitamin D in TF reveals a novel commercial source for this nutrient.

Garlic Bulb Decay and Soft Rot Caused by the Cross-Kingdom Pathogen Burkholderia gladioli

In 2021, two gram-negative bacterial strains were isolated from garlic (Allium sativum) bulbs showing decay and soft rot symptoms in Central Iran. The bacterial strains were aggressively pathogenic on cactus, garlic, gladiolus, onion, potato, and saffron plants and induced soft rot symptoms on carrot, cucumber, potato, and radish discs. Furthermore, they were pathogenic on sporophores of cultivated and wild mushrooms. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the bacterial strains belong to Burkholderia gladioli. Garlic bulb rot caused by B. gladioli has rarely been reported in the literature. Historically, B. gladioli strains had been assigned to four pathovars, namely, B. gladioli pv. alliicola, B. gladioli pv. gladioli, B. gladioli pv. agaricicola, and B. gladioli pv. cocovenenans, infecting onion, Gladiolus sp., and mushrooms and poisoning foods, respectively. Multilocus (i.e., 16S rRNA, atpD, gyrB, and lepA genes) sequence-based phylogenetic investigations including reference strains of B. gladioli pathovars showed that the two garlic strains belong to phylogenomic clade 2 of the species, which includes the pathotype strain of B. gladioli pv. alliicola. Although the garlic strains were phylogenetically closely related to the B. gladioli pv. alliicola reference strains, they possessed pathogenicity characteristics that overlapped with three of the four historical pathovars, including the ability to rot onion (pv. alliicola), gladiolus (pv. gladioli), and mushrooms (pv. agaricicola). Furthermore, the pathotype of each pathovar could infect the hosts of other pathovars, undermining the utility of the pathovar concept in this species. Overall, using phenotypic pathovar-oriented assays to classify B. gladioli strains should be replaced by phylogenetic or phylogenomic analysis.

Garlic (Allium sativum) and mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) powder: Investigation of performance, immune organs and humoural and cellular immune response in broilers

BACKGROUND

Alternatives to antibiotics have been suggested by banning their use in the poultry industry. Garlic and mushroom are two important phytobiotic compounds in poultry nutrition.

OBJECTIVES

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of supplementing diets with garlic and mushroom powder (MP) on growth performance, humoural and cellular immunity, and white blood cell counts of broiler chickens.

METHODS

Five hundred and seventy-six 1-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were assigned to 8 treatments with 6 replications (12 birds per replication) based on a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement of 4 × 2 with 4 levels of garlic powder (GP; 0.00%, 0.50%, 1.00%, and 1.50%) and two levels of MP (0.00% and 1.00%).

RESULTS

No significant effects of GP and MP on the growth performance and cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity were observed (p > 0.05). According to the regression equation, with increasing levels of GP in the diets, the relative weight of the bursa of Fabricius and thymus increased (p < 0.05). The effect of increasing levels of GP on the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) titre was greater in the absence of MP (p < 0.05). With increasing levels of GP in the diets, the percentages of lymphocytes and heterophils to lymphocytes ratio increased and reduced, respectively (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This experiment has revealed that increasing the level of GP improved the immune response of broilers without affecting performance. The effect of increasing the level of GP on the NDV titre was more significant in the absence of MP.

β-glucans from Agaricus bisporus mushroom products drive Trained Immunity

Introduction

Macrofungi, such as edible mushrooms, have been used as a valuable medical resource for millennia as a result of their antibacterial and immuno-modulatory components. Mushrooms contain dietary fibers known as β-glucans, a class of polysaccharides previously linked to the induction of Trained Immunity. However, little is known about the ability of mushroom-derived β-glucans to induce Trained Immunity.

Methods & results

Using various powdered forms of the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), we found that mouse macrophages pre-treated with whole mushroom powder (WMP) displayed enhanced responses to restimulation with TLR ligands, being particularly sensitive to Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 stimulation using synthetic lipopeptides. This trained response was modest compared to training observed with yeast-derived β-glucans and correlated with the amount of available β-glucans in the WMP. Enriching for β-glucans content using either a simulated in-vitro digestion or chemical fractionation retained and boosted the trained response with WMP, respectively. Importantly, both WMP and digested-WMP preparations retained β-glucans as identified by nuclear magnetic resonance analysis and both displayed the capacity to train human monocytes and enhanced responses to restimulation. To determine if dietary incorporation of mushroom products can lead to Trained Immunity in myeloid cells in vivo, mice were given a regimen of WMP by oral gavage prior to sacrifice. Flow cytometric analysis of bone-marrow progenitors indicated alterations in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells population dynamics, with shift toward myeloid-committed multi-potent progenitor cells. Mature bone marrow-derived macrophages derived from these mice displayed enhanced responses to restimulation, again particularly sensitive to TLR2.

Discussion

Taken together, these data demonstrate that β-glucans from common macrofungi can train innate immune cells and could point to novel ways of delivering bio-available β-glucans for education of the innate immune system.

Synthetic biology enables mushrooms to meet emerging sustainable challenges

With the increasing sustainability challenges, synthetic biology is offering new possibilities for addressing the emerging problems through the cultivation and fermentation of mushrooms. In this perspective, we aim to provide an overview on the research and applications mushroom synthetic biology, emphasizing the need for increased attention and inclusion of this rapidly advancing field in future mushroom technology over China and other countries. By leveraging synthetic biology, mushrooms are expected to play a more versatile role in various area, including traditional fields like circular economy, human wellness and pharmaceutics, as well as emerging fields like vegan meat, mushroom-based materials and pollution abatement. We are confident that these efforts using synthetic biology strategies have the potential to strengthen our capacity to effectively address sustainable challenges, leading to the development of a more sustainable social economy and ecology.

New species of Tropicoporus (Basidiomycota, Hymenochaetales, Hymenochaetaceae) from India, with a key to Afro-Asian Tropicoporus species

The Inonotuslinteus complex, predominantly reported from East Asia, Mesoamerica and Caribbean countries, was circumscribed into Tropicoporus as one of the new genera, based on morphological and phylogenetic data. The present paper describes four new species of Tropicoporus from India. Morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses, based on ITS and nLSU data, delimited the new species, which are named T.cleistanthicola, T.indicus, T.pseudoindicus and T.tamilnaduensis. The pairwise homoplasy index (PHI) test was done to confirm the distinctive nature of the new species. The traits of Indian species remain distinct from one another, except for the pileate basidiome with the mono-dimitic hyphal system, cystidioles and broadly ellipsoid basidiospores. Descriptions, illustrations, PHI test results and a phylogenetic tree to show the position of the new species are provided. In addition, an identification key to Tropicoporus in Asia and an African species is given.

Unexpected Amanita phalloides-Induced Hematotoxicity-Results from a Retrospective Study

INTRODUCTION

Amanita phalloides poisoning is a serious health problem with a mortality rate of 10-40%. Poisonings are characterized by severe liver and kidney toxicity. The effect of Amanita phalloides poisonings on hematological parameters has not been systematically evaluated thus far.

METHODS

Patients with suspected Amanita phalloides poisonings were retrospectively selected from the hospital database of the University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG). Medical data-including demographics; liver, kidney, and blood parameters; treatment; and outcomes-were collected. The severity of the poisoning was scored using the poison severity score.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight patients were identified who were admitted to the UMCG with suspected Amanita phalloides poisoning between 1994 and 2022. A time-dependent decrease was observed for hemoglobin and hematocrit concentrations, leukocytes, and platelets. Six out of twenty-eight patients developed acute liver failure (ALF). Patients with ALF showed a higher increase in liver enzymes, international normalized ratios, and PSS compared to patients without ALF. Conversely, hemoglobin and platelet numbers were decreased even further in these patients. Three out of six patients with ALF died and one patient received a liver transplant.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows that Amanita phalloides poisonings may be associated with hematotoxicity in patients. The quantification of hematological parameters is of relevance in intoxicated patients, especially in those with ALF.

The Mushroom Albatrellus confluens: A Minireview on Phytochemistry, Biosynthesis, Synthesis and Pharmacological Activities

BACKGROUND

Albatrellus confluens is one of the representative species in the Polyporaceae family. Its major mero terpenoid grifolin and related compounds have the potential for drug applications.

OBJECTIVE

The current study aims to briefly provide an insightful view of the phytochemistry, biosynthesis, synthesis, and pharmacology of A. confluens metabolites.

METHODS

Data collection was performed using electronic resources, e.g., Google Scholar, PubMed, and Sci-Finder from the 1990s to the present, while Albatrellus confluens is the most meaningful keyword in the search for publications. The Latin name Albatrellus confluens (Alb. & Schwein.) Kotl. & Pouzar is in accordance with the name listing on www.mycobank.org.

RESULTS

By chromatography column procedures, it indicated that A. confluens species was associated with the presence of 57 secondary metabolites, in which nitrogenous compounds, meroterpenoids, polyene pyrones, and polyesters can be seen as the main phytochemical classes. L-isoleucine was the parent molecule in biosynthetic and synthetic steps of A. confluens nitrogenous compounds. Numerous experiments revealed that A. confluens isolated compounds have a variety of pharmacological activities, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, vasorelaxant, and neuroprotective and skin whitening activities. Some isolates become potential cancer inhibitors. Grifolin induced apoptosis and promoted cell cycle arrest in A2780 ovarian cancer cells via the inactivation of the ERK1/2/Akt signaling pathway. Grifolic acid caused osteosarcoma cancer cell deaths by inhibiting NADH generation and ATP production without obvious toxicity. Neoalbaconol caused apoptosis and necroptosis in mice bearing nasopharyngeal C666-1 cancer cells via PDK1-PI3K/Akt signaling inhibition.

CONCLUSION

The continuation of chromatographic separation and biomedical research is expected. Modern biological assays for explaining the pharmacological values of A. confluens constituents are warranted. Toxicological and pharmacokinetic assessments are urgently needed.

Cloning and Expression Analysis of Bioluminescence Genes in Omphalotus guepiniiformis Reveal Stress-Dependent Regulation of Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence that arises from a luciferase-catalyzed oxidation reaction of luciferin. Molecular biology and comparative genomics have recently elucidated the genes involved in fungal bioluminescence and the evolutionary history of their clusters. However, most studies on fungal bioluminescence have been limited to observing the changes in light intensity under various conditions. To understand the molecular basis of bioluminescent responses in Omphalotus guepiniiformis under different environmental conditions, we cloned and sequenced the genes of hispidin synthase, hispidin-3-hydroxylase, and luciferase enzymes, which are pivotal in the fungal bioluminescence pathway. Each gene showed high sequence similarity to that of other luminous fungal species. Furthermore, we investigated their transcriptional changes in response to abiotic stresses. Wound stress enhanced the bioluminescence intensity by increasing the expression of bioluminescence pathway genes, while temperature stress suppressed the bioluminescence intensity via the non-transcriptional pathway. Our data suggested that O. guepiniiformis regulates bioluminescence to respond differentially to specific environmental stresses. To our knowledge, this is the first study on fungal bioluminescence at the gene expression level. Further studies are required to address the biological and ecological meaning of different bioluminescence responses in changing environments, and O. quepiniiformis could be a potential model species.

Phylogenomics of the psychoactive mushroom genus Psilocybe and evolution of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster

Psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe have immense cultural value and have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica. Despite the recent surge of interest in these mushrooms due to the psychotherapeutic potential of their natural alkaloid psilocybin, their phylogeny and taxonomy remain substantially incomplete. Moreover, the recent elucidation of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster is known for only five of ~165 species of Psilocybe, four of which belong to only one of two major clades. We set out to improve the phylogeny of Psilocybe using shotgun sequencing of fungarium specimens, from which we obtained 71 metagenomes including from 23 types, and conducting phylogenomic analysis of 2,983 single-copy gene families to generate a fully supported phylogeny. Molecular clock analysis suggests the stem lineage of Psilocybe arose ~67 mya and diversified ~56 mya. We also show that psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe, with 4 to 5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms between 40 and 9 mya. Moreover, predicted orthologs of the psilocybin biosynthetic genes revealed two distinct gene orders within the biosynthetic gene cluster that corresponds to a deep split within the genus, possibly a signature of two independent acquisitions of the cluster within Psilocybe.

Elimination of Acrolein by Disodium 5'-Guanylate or Disodium 5'-Inosinate at High Temperature and Its Application in Roasted Pork Patty

Acrolein (ACR) is a highly active, simple unsaturated aldehyde found in various high-temperature processed foods. Its long-term accumulation in the human body increases the risk of chronic diseases. Animal and plant foodstuffs are rich in disodium 5'-guanylate (GMP) and disodium 5'-inosinate (IMP), which are authorized flavor enhancers. Herein, we used liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry to explore the reaction-active kinetics and pathway of the interaction between GMP/IMP and ACR and validated it in roasted pork patties. Our results suggested that GMP and IMP could efficiently eliminate ACR by forming ACR adducts (GMP-ACR, IMP-ACR). In addition, IMP exhibited a higher reaction rate, whereas GMP had a good trapping capacity at a later stage. As carriers of GMP and IMP, dried mushrooms and shrimp exhibited an effective ACR-trapping ability in the ACR model and roasted pork patty individually and in combination. Adding 10% of dried mushroom or shrimp alone or 5% of dried mushroom and shrimp in combination eliminated up to 53.9%, 55.8%, and 55.2% ACR in a roasted pork patty, respectively. This study proposed a novel strategy to eliminate the generation of ACR in roasted pork patties by adding foodstuffs rich in GMP and IMP.

ostreatus)

Pulsed electric fields (PEF) technology has been used as a sustainable method for extracting antioxidant bioactive compounds from different food matrices. In the present study, the optimal conditions of PEF extraction for mushrooms (2.5 kV/cm, 50 kJ/kg, 6 h) were applied to Lentinula edodes, Agaricus brunnescens, and Pleurotus ostreatus to evaluate the total antioxidant capacity of the extracts, followed by the Triple TOF-LC-MS-MS analysis of the phenolic profile compared to A. bisporus by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrophotometry. In addition, the microporation effect of the technology on the mushroom surface was evaluated using scanning electron microscopy. A comparison was made with a maceration extraction (aqueous stirring for 6 h). The results showed that PEF-assisted extraction enhanced the recovery of antioxidant compounds such as 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic and cinnamic acid with contents up to 236.85 µg/100 g dry weight and 2043.26 µg/100 g dry weight from A. bisporus, respectively. However, mixed results were obtained for certain phenolic compounds, including vanillic acid from L. edodes, ellagic acid from P. ostreatus, and thymol from all mushrooms. These results indicate that the application of PEF technology is effective for the extraction of antioxidant compounds in fungal matrices by creating micropores in cell membranes that allow great recovery in matrices with high content of bioactive compounds.

The Acute and Chronic Effects of Lion's Mane Mushroom Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Stress and Mood in Young Adults: A Double-Blind, Parallel Groups, Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Given the bioactive properties and limited work to date, Hericium erinaceus (Lion's mane) shows promise in improving cognitive function and mood. However, much of the human research has concentrated on chronic supplementation in cognitively compromised cohorts.

OBJECTIVE

The current pilot study investigated the acute and chronic (28-day) cognitive and mood-enhancing effects of Hericium erinaceus in a healthy, young adult cohort.

DESIGN

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-groups design investigated the acute (60 min post dose) and chronic (28-day intervention) effects of 1.8 g Hericium erinaceus in 41 healthy adults aged 18-45 years.

RESULTS

Analysis revealed that following a single dose of Hericium erinaceus, participants performed quicker on the Stroop task (p = 0.005) at 60 min post dose. A trend towards reduced subjective stress was observed following 28-day supplementation (p = 0.051).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings tentatively suggest that Hericium erinaceus may improve speed of performance and reduce subjective stress in healthy, young adults. However, null and limited negative findings were also observed. Given the small sample size, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Further investigation in larger sample sizes is crucial, however the findings of this trial offer a promising avenue of interest.

Effects of Tremella fuciformis Mushroom Polysaccharides on Structure, Pasting, and Thermal Properties of Chinese Chestnuts (Castanea henryi) Starch Granules under Different Freeze-Thaw Cycles

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides on the physicochemical properties of freeze-thawed cone chestnut starch. Various aspects, including water content, crystallinity, particle size, gelatinization, retrogradation, thermal properties, rheological properties, and texture, were examined. The results revealed that moderate freezing and thawing processes increased the retrogradation of starch; particle size, viscosity, shear type, hinning degree, and hardness decreased. After adding Tremella fuciformis polysaccharide, the particle size, relative crystallinity, and gelatinization temperature decreased, which showed solid characteristics. Consequently, the inclusion of Tremella fuciformis polysaccharide effectively countered dehydration caused by freezing and thawing, reduced viscosity, and prevented the retrogradation of frozen-thawed chestnut starch. Moreover, Tremella fuciformis polysaccharide played a significant role in enhancing the stability of the frozen-thawed chestnut starch. These findings highlight the potential benefits of incorporating Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides in starch-based products subjected to freeze-thaw cycles.

A ten-year retrospective California Poison Control System experience with possible amatoxin mushroom calls

INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms containing amatoxin are found worldwide and represent a challenging poisoning for the clinician and consulting poison center. This study evaluates the experience of a large poison system with possible amatoxin-containing mushroom ingestion calls.

METHODS

A 10-year retrospective review of the California Poison Control System database was performed for amatoxin mushroom ingestion calls resulting in hospitalization. Cases found were abstracted and data statistically analyzed for association with a composite endpoint of death, liver transplant, and/or the need for dialysis.

RESULTS

Amatoxin-containing mushroom calls are infrequent with the vast majority (98.4 percent) coming from Northern California during the rainier first and fourth quarters (October through March) of the year. Elevated initial aminotransferase activities and international normalized ratios were predictive of the composite negative outcome. The mortality plus liver transplant and hemodialysis composite rate was 8.2 percent, consistent with current literature.

CONCLUSION

The California Poison Control System has relatively few amatoxin-containing mushroom ingestion calls that result in hospitalization but those that are reported mostly occur in Northern California. Treatment bias towards the sickest patients may explain the association of intravenous fluid use or treatment with acetylcysteine or silibinin with meeting the composite outcome. The initial presence of elevated hepatic aminotransferase activity and international normalized ratios are poor prognostic indicators and are likely reflective of late presentation, an advanced toxic phase of amatoxin poisoning, and/or delays in time to obtain poison center consultation.

nov., two novel ascomycetous yeast species from mushrooms and cocoa leaves in Thailand, and reassignment of Candida andamanensis, Candida jaroonii and Candida songkhlaensis to the genus Yamadazyma

Six strains representing two novel ascomycetous yeast species were isolated from mushroom fruiting bodies and cocoa leaves collected in Thailand. Analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit rRNA gene sequences showed that the six strains were divided into two groups. The first group consisted of four strains (DMKU-SSK46, DMKU-SK1, SCCL3-5 and SCCL19-3), that were closely related to the type strains of Candida conglobata, Candida insectorum, Yamadazyma dushanensis, Yamadazyma mexicana and Yamadazyma riverae, but with 12-14 (2.5-2.9 %) and 28-50 (5.4-8.8 %) nucleotide substitutions in the D1/D2 domains and the ITS regions, respectively. However, two strains (DMKU-KMY40 and DMKU-KO18) of the second group differed from a group of described species, Candida diddensiae, Candida dendronema, Candida germanica, Candida kanchanaburiensis, Candida naeodendra, Candida vaughaniae and Yamadazyma siamensis by 8-15 (1.5-2.8 %) and 45-53 (8.2-9.6 %) nucleotide substitutions in the D1/D2 domains and the ITS regions, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on the concatenated sequences of the ITS regions and D1/D2 domains showed that these strains represented two species of the Yamadazyma clade that were distinct from the other related species. Based on the phylogenetic analysis and phenotypic characteristics, these six strains were assigned to two novel species of the genus Yamadazyma, although formation of ascospores was not observed. Yamadazyma sisaketensis f.a., sp. nov., is proposed for the first group (four strains). The holotype is TBRC 17139T (ex-type culture: PYCC 9797). The MycoBank number is MB 849637. Yamadazyma koratensis f.a., sp. nov. is proposed for the second group (two strains). The holotype is TBRC 14868T (ex-type culture: PYCC 8907). The MycoBank number is MB 849638. In addition, it is proposed that Candida andamanensis, Candida jaroonii and Candida songkhlaensis are reassigned to the genus Yamadazyma as Yamadazyma andamanensis comb. nov., Y. jaroonii comb. nov. and Y. songkhlaensis comb. nov., respectively.

Antiproliferative p-terphenyl derivatives isolated from the fungus Sarcodon scabripes

The ethanol extract of the fungus Sarcodon scabripes collected from north-central British Columbia, Canada, showed strong antiproliferative activity. Bioassay-guided purification using liquid-liquid extraction and Sephadex LH-20 size-exclusion chromatography, followed by HPLC-MS and 1D/2D NMR analyses, led to the isolation of five known compounds; four p-terphenyl (1-4) derivatives and one phenolic aldehyde (5). Compounds 1, 4, and 5 were isolated for the first time from the Sarcodon genus. The cytotoxicity MTT assay showed that compounds 1-5 have antiproliferative activity against human cervical cancer cells (HeLa). For compounds 1-4, this is the first report of their antiproliferative activity against cancer cells. For compound 2, this is the first report on its bioactivity. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the isolation of bioactive constituents from S. scabripes.

[Determination of amanita peptide and tryptamine toxins in wild mushrooms by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry]

The discovery and identification of mushroom toxins has long been an important area in the fields of toxicology and food safety. Mushrooms are widely favored for their culinary and medicinal value; however, the presence of potentially lethal toxins in some species poses a substantial challenge in ensuring their safe consumption. Therefore, the development of a robust and sensitive analytical method is necessary for accurately identifying the risks associated with mushroom consumption. The study of mushroom toxins, which are characterized by their diversity and substantial variations in chemical structures, present a considerable challenge for achieving precise and high-throughput analysis. To address this issue, the present study employed a robust approach combining a solid-phase extraction (SPE) purification technique with high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) to establish an analytical method for the detection and quantification of five amatoxins and two tryptamines (psilocybin and bufotenine) present in some mushrooms. Several optimization procedures were undertaken, including optimizing the chromatographic conditions, mass spectrometric parameters, and sample extraction and purification. The procedure involved the extraction of dry mushroom powder with methanol containing 0.3% formic acid, followed by purification using a strong cation exchange cartridge (SCX). The analytes were separated on a T3 chromatographic column (100 mm×2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) using mobile phases of acetonitrile and 5 mmol/L ammonium acetate solution containing 0.1% formic acid. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was employed for data acquisition. Amatoxins were quantified using matrix-matched standard calibration curves, whereas isotopic internal standards were used to quantify tryptamine. The results showed that all seven toxins exhibited good linearities (r2>0.99) within the optimized concentration range. The limits of detection (LODs) for bufotenine, psilocybin, and amatoxins were determined as 2.0, 5.0, and 10 μg/kg, respectively, while the limits of quantification (LOQs) were determined as 5.0, 10, and 20 μg/kg, respectively. The LOD and LOQ values further underscore the ability of the method to detect minute quantities of toxins, making it particularly well suited for screening food samples for potential contamination. Using dried shiitake mushroom powder as the matrix, the recoveries of the two tryptamines ranged from 80.6% to 117%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranging from 1.73% to 5.98%, while the recoveries of amatoxins ranged from 71.8% to 115%, with RSDs varying from 2.14% to 9.92% at the three concentration levels. The consistent and satisfactory recoveries of amatoxins and tryptamines demonstrated the ability of this method to accurately quantify the target analytes even in a complex matrix. Comparison with the results of supplementary test method recognized by State Administration for Market Regulation for food (BJS 202008) demonstrated comparable results, indicating no significant differences (p>0.05) in amatoxin contents. The newly developed method is rapid, accurate, precise, meets the required standards, and is suitable for the detection of seven toxins in wild mushrooms. As part of the application of this method, a comprehensive investigation of the distribution of toxins in wild mushrooms from Fujian Province was undertaken. In this study, 59 wild mushroom samples from nine cities were collected in the Fujian province. Species identification was conducted using rDNA-internal transcribed space (rDNA-ITS) molecular barcode technology, which revealed the presence of toxins in the two samples. Notably, one specimen named Amanita fuligineoides contained α-amanitin, β-amanitin, and phalloidin in quantities of 607, 377, and 69.0 mg/kg, respectively. Additionally, another sample, identified as Tricholomataceae, had a psilocybin concentration of 12.6 mg/kg.

New benzaldehyde derivatives from the fruiting bodies of Hericium erinaceus with cytotoxic activity

Four new natural compounds named hericenone O (1), hericenone P (2), hericenone Q (3), and hericenone R (4), two of them were reported synthetically (3-4), together with eleven known compounds were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Hericium erinaceus. The chemical structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by using NMR analysis and mass spectrometry, as well as comparisons with the reported data in the literature. The bioactivity evaluation revealed that hericenone Q showed significant cytotoxic activity against Hep-G2 with IC50 values of 23.89 μM, and against HCT-116 with IC50 values of 65.64 μM.

Nature's Own Pharmacy: Mushroom-Based Chemical Scaffolds and Their Therapeutic Implications

Mushrooms are new potential sources of valuable medicines, long neglected because of difficulties experienced in their cultivation. There is a large variety of medicinal mushrooms which possess significant therapeutic properties and are used as medications for various diseases because they contain several novel highly bioactive components. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified based on their morphology, size, mass, and the color of the stalk, cap and spore, and attachment to the stalk. Medicinal mushrooms possess a variety of important biological activities and are used as antioxidants, hepatoprotectors, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiaging, antiviral, antiparasitic, and antimicrobial agents, among others. This review provides a basic overview of the chemical scaffolds present in mushrooms and their therapeutic implications in the human body.

The Effect of Mushroom Dietary Fiber on the Gut Microbiota and Related Health Benefits: A Review

Mushroom dietary fiber is a type of bioactive macromolecule derived from the mycelia, fruiting bodies, or sclerotia of edible or medicinal fungi. The use of mushroom dietary fiber as a prebiotic has recently gained significant attention for providing health benefits to the host by promoting the growth of beneficial microorganisms; therefore, mushroom dietary fiber has promising prospects for application in the functional food industry and in drug development. This review summarizes methods for the preparation and modification of mushroom dietary fiber, its degradation and metabolism in the intestine, its impact on the gut microbiota community, and the generation of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs); this review also systematically summarizes the beneficial effects of mushroom dietary fiber on host health. Overall, this review aims to provide theoretical guidance and a fresh perspective for the prebiotic application of mushroom dietary fiber in the development of new functional foods and drugs.

Molecular and Functional Analyses of Characterized Sesquiterpene Synthases in Mushroom-Forming Fungi

Sesquiterpenes are a type of abundant natural product with widespread applications in several industries. They are biosynthesized by sesquiterpene synthases (STSs). As valuable and abundant biological resources, mushroom-forming fungi are rich in new sesquiterpenes and STSs, which remain largely unexploited. In the present study, we collected information on 172 STSs from mushroom-forming fungi with experimentally characterized products from the literature and sorted them to develop a dataset. Furthermore, we analyzed and discussed the phylogenetic tree, catalytic products, and conserved motifs of STSs. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the STSs were clustered into four clades. Furthermore, their cyclization reaction mechanism was divided into four corresponding categories. This database was used to predict 12 putative STS genes from the edible fungi Flammulina velutipes. Finally, three FvSTSs were selected to experimentally characterize their functions. FvSTS03 predominantly produced Δ-cadinol and FvSTS08 synthesized β-barbatene as the main product; these findings were consistent with those of the functional prediction analysis. A product titer of 78.8 mg/L β-barbatene was achieved in Saccharomyces cerevisiae via metabolic engineering. Our study findings will help screen or design STSs from fungi with specific product profiles as functional elements for applications in synthetic biology.

Anticancer assessment and antibiofilm potential of Laetiporus sulphureus mushroom originated from Serbia

Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) Murrill is a well-known edible mushroom consumed in nutrition as delicacy. It has been used in traditional medicine because of its beneficial effects on human wellness, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer potential. The present study determined the phenolic profile of Laetiporus sulphureus ethanolic extract (LSE) by high-performance liquid chromatographic method. Tolerance of two probiotic bacterial strains Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 229v, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis and probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii on LSE was analyzed in terms of viability and biofilm formation. Effects of extract on colorectal (HCT-116) and cervical (HeLa) cancer cells viability was determined using MTT test in concentration range: 1-500 μg/mL after 24 and 72 h. Redox parameters (superoxide anion radicals, nitrites, and reduced glutathione) were evaluated using NBT, Griess, and GSH assays in the concentration range of 1-500 μg/mL after 24 and 72 h. Antimigratory activity was determined by wound healing method using selected concentrations of 10 and 50 μg/mL after 24 h. Untreated cells were considered as control. As control cell line, we used healthy fibroblasts (MRC-5). Our results demonstrated abundance of LSE in phenolics, with rosmarinic acid as the main component. LSE induced low tolerance of tested planktonic probiotic strains, with no affection on their ability to form biofilm. No significant cytotoxicity on tested cancer cells was observed, with prooxidative and antimigratory effects noticed. Extract exerted significant antimigratory activity on cancer cells without effect on planktonic and probiotic cultures in biofilm. These results indicate potential application of Laetiporus sulphureus ethanolic extract as natural protector of probiotics with prominent ability to suppress cancer cell motility.

A Further Step toward Sustainable Development: The Case of the Edible Mushroom Supply Chain

This study provides an accurate economic characterization of the supply of edible mushrooms throughout Italy within the European context to fill the relevant research gap and highlight barriers and opportunities that are consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals. Italian companies operating in this field were identified and economically characterized using the Chamber of Commerce's Register of Companies. A qualitative web content analysis was then conducted to extract information about the marketed products, mushroom species, and retail channels, as well as the adopted certifications. The obtained data were quantitatively analyzed through descriptive statistics and multiple correspondence analysis. The Italian market is concentrated in northern areas of the country, and the limited company size indicates fragmentation at the production level, which led to Italy not being competitive enough and, thus, heavily rely on imports. Production is limited to less than 10 species, and innovative mushroom-based products, such as burgers, have shown a limited presence on the market, although they are gaining market share online. The novelty of growing kits highlights the potential to use food production waste to create fungal substrates. Investments in training new mushroom growers and studying new formulations and new fungal species are needed; these investments could allow greater market differentiation and be a good opportunity to promote local economies and create new job opportunities, thus meeting the requirements for sustainable development.

"Fruiting Liquid" of Mushroom-Forming Fungi, A Novel Source of Bioactive Compounds - Fruiting-Body Inducer and HIF and Axl Inhibitors

In general, mushroom-forming fungi secrete liquid on the surface of mycelia just before fruiting-body formation. However, no researchers in mushroom science have paid attention to the liquid until now. We formulated a hypothesis that the liquid plays an important role(s) in the formation of the fruiting body and produces various bioactive compounds and named it the "fruiting liquid (FL)". Four novel compounds (1-4) were isolated from FL of Hypholoma lateritium and Hericium erinaceus. The structures of 1-4 except for their stereochemistry were determined by interpretation of MS and NMR data. The absolute configurations of compounds 1-4 were determined by quantum chemical calculation of the ECD spectrum, by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses, or by chemical syntheses. Compounds 1, 3, and 4 induced fruiting body formation of Flammulina velutipes. Compound 4 inhibited the activity of hypoxia-inducible factor, and compounds 2-4 suppressed receptor tyrosine kinase (Axl) expression.

Edible and Medicinal Macrofungi

Macrofungi are well known as mushrooms, which belong mostly to Basidiomycota with a few from Ascomycota, and up to now, around 40,000 species have been described. In people's lives, macrofungi are closely related to our economic activities, especially for food and medicine. "One meat, one vegetable and one mushroom" has become a healthy and fashionable dietary structure, and the global edible mushroom production and cultivating area are steadily rising. On the other hand, a large number of mushroom species and new active components have been found, and have become one of the driving forces of innovation of drugs and health products, especially with the development of biochemistry, enzyme engineering, and genetic engineering. Thus, macrofungi in food, medicine, and other aspects have shown a broad prospect. In this Special Issue, research on new species and related molecular phylogenies, mechanisms of hyphae polar growing and basidiocarp formation, biochemistry of edible and medical mushrooms, and some important scientific questions related to the edible mushroom industry are presented, which also reflect the hot areas of common concern on edible and medicinal fungi.

Psilocybin history, action and reaction: A narrative clinical review

Hallucinogenic mushrooms have been used in religious and cultural ceremonies for centuries. Of late, psilocybin, the psychoactive compound in hallucinogenic mushrooms, has received increased public interest as a novel drug for treating mood and substance use disorders (SUDs). In addition, in recent years, some states in the United States have legalized psilocybin for medical and recreational use. Given this, clinicians need to understand the potential benefits and risks related to using psilocybin for therapeutic purposes so that they can accurately advise patients. This expert narrative review summarizes the scientific basis and clinical evidence on the safety and efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy for treating psychiatric disorders and SUDs. The results of this review are structured as a more extensive discussion about psilocybin's history, putative mechanisms of action, and recent legislative changes to its legal status. There is modest evidence of psilocybin-assisted therapy for treating depression and anxiety disorders. In addition, early data suggest that psilocybin-assisted therapy may effectively reduce harmful drinking in patients with alcohol use disorders. The evidence further suggests psilocybin, when administered under supervision (psilocybin-assisted therapy), the side effects experienced are mild and transient. The occurrence of severe adverse events following psilocybin administration is uncommon. Still, a recent clinical trial found that individuals in the psilocybin arm had increased suicidal ideations and non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors. Given this, further investigation into the safety and efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy is warranted to determine which patient subgroups are most likely to benefit and which are most likely to experience adverse outcomes related to its use.

in oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)

In predictive microbiology, primary and secondary models can be used to predict microbial growth, usually in a two-step modelling approach. The inverse dynamic modelling approach is an alternative method to direct modelling methods, in which the primary and secondary models are fitted simultaneously from non-isothermal data, minimising experimental effort and costs. Thus, the main aim of the present study was to compare the prediction capabilities of the mathematical modelling approaches used for calculating growth kinetics of microorganisms in predictive food microbiology field. For this purpose, the bacterial growth data of Pseudomonas spp. in oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) subjected to isothermal and non-isothermal storage temperatures were collected from previously published growth curves. Temperature-dependent kinetic growth parameters (maximum specific growth rate 'µmax' and lag phase duration 'λ') were described as a function of storage temperature using the direct two-step, direct one-step and inverse dynamic modelling approach based on Baranyi and Huang models. The fitting capability of the modelling approaches was separately compared, and the one-step modelling approach for the direct methods provided better goodness of fit results regardless of used primary models, which leads the Huang model with being RMSE = 0.226 and R2adj = 0.949 became best for direct methods. Like seen in direct methods, the Huang model gave better goodness of fit results than Baranyi model for inverse method. Results revealed there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the growth kinetic parameters obtained from direct one-step modelling approach and inverse modelling approaches based on the Huang model. Satisfactorily statistical indexes show that the inverse dynamic modelling approach can be reliably used as an alternative way of describing the growth behaviour of Pseudomonas spp. in oyster mushroom in a fast and minimum labour effort.

Molecular Profiling, Characterization and Antimicrobial Efficacy of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized from Calvatia gigantea and Mycena leaiana against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens

The use of natural products isolated from mushrooms against infection, cancer diseases and other oxidative-stress-related diseases is one of the cornerstones of modern medicine. Therefore, we tried to establish a combination of medicinal mushrooms and nanotechnology possibly with the field of medicine for the development of antibacterial agents against these MDR strains. The aim of the research was to understand the molecular identification, characterization and antibacterial action of Calvatia gigantea and Mycena leaiana. The identification of fruiting body species via morpho-anatomical and molecular methods was necessary to analyze the genetic variability and phylogenetic relationships of mushrooms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Calvatia from Hunza, Pakistan, exhibited 98% resemblance to the previously discovered Langermannia gigantean (DQ112623) and L. gigantean (LN714562) from northern Europe, and Mycena (Pakistan) showed a 97% similarity to M. leaiana (MF686520) and M. leaiana (MW448623) from the USA. UV-vis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used for AgNPs' characterization. The UV-vis absorption peak of 500-600 nm indicates the AgNPs' presence. XRD results determined Calvatia gigantea AgNPs were nanocrystals and Mycena leaiana seems to be amorphous. In addition, SEM results showed the cubic morphology of C. gigantea with a diameter of 65 nm, and the FTIR spectra of fruiting body revealed the presence of functional groups-carboxyl, nitro, and hydroxyl-in AgNPs, which catalyzed the reduction of Ag+ to Ag0. Further antibacterial activity of mushrooms against MDR strains was determined via agar well diffusion assay, and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was estimated by qualitative experimentation using the broth dilution method. All experiments were conducted in triplicate. The results showed that the mushroom AgNPs, along with their synergy and nano-composites (with the exception of Ethyl-acetate), were shown to have zones of inhibition from 4 mm to 29 mm against multidrug-resistant pathogens such as Acinetobacter baumannii, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter cloacae and Escherichia coli. The mushroom composites were active against most of the tested microorganisms whilst the lowest MIC value (10-40 mg/mL) was recorded against MDR strains. Hence, the present study suggested the possibility of employing compounds present in mushrooms for the development of new antibacterial agents, as well as efflux pump inhibitors.

Safe Production Strategies for Soil-Covered Cultivation of Morel in Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils

Morel is a popular edible mushroom with considerable medicinal and economic value which has garnered global popularity. However, the increasing heavy metal (HM) pollution in the soil presents a significant challenge to morels cultivation. Given the susceptibility of morels to HM accumulation, the quality and output of morels are at risk, posing a serious food safety concern that hinders the development of the morel industry. Nonetheless, research on the mechanism of HM enrichment and mitigation strategies in morel remains scarce. The morel, being cultivated in soil, shows a positive correlation between HM content in its fruiting body and the HM content in the soil. Therefore, soil remediation emerges as the most practical and effective approach to tackle HM pollution. Compared to physical and chemical remediation, bioremediation is a low-cost and eco-friendly approach that poses minimal threats to soil composition and structure. HMs easily enriched during morels cultivation were examined, including Cd, Cu, Hg, and Pb, and we assessed soil passivation technology, microbial remediation, strain screening and cultivation, and agronomic measures as potential approaches for HM pollution prevention. The current review underscores the importance of establishing a comprehensive system for preventing HM pollution in morels.

Difference in Volatile Aroma Components of Stropharia rugosoannulata under Two Cultivated Environments Investigated by SPME-GC-MS

In order to study the effect of both greenhouse and forest cultivating environments on Stropharia rugosoannulata, its volatile aroma compounds were measured by a headspace solid phase micro extractions-gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (SPME-GC-MS). The optimal adsorption temperature was 75 °C and the optimal adsorption time was 40 min. A total of 36 volatile aroma compounds were identified by GC-MS, including 8 aldehydes, 2 ketones, 4 alcohols, 15 alkenes, and 4 alkanes. Hexanal, 3-Octanone, 2-Undecanone, (E)-Nerolidol, and (Z)-β-Farnesene made great aromatic contributions. Among them, Hexanal, 3-Octanone, 2-Undecanone were the key aroma compounds for which odor activity values (OAVs) were more than 1. (E)-Nerolidol showed odor modification in the forest samples and showed a key aroma effect in greenhouse samples. (Z)-β-Farnesene showed odor modification in greenhouse samples. 3-Octanone was the largest contributing compound for which the OAV was more than 60. The total content of volatile aroma compounds first increased and then decreased with growth time; it reached the highest level at 48 h: 2203.7 ± 115.2 μg/kg for the forest environment and 4516.6 ± 228.5 μg/kg for the greenhouse environment. The aroma was the most abundant at this time. All samples opened their umbrella at 84 h and become inedible. Principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were combined to analyze the aroma difference of S. rugosoannulata under two cultivation modes. PCA and HCA could effectively distinguish the aroma difference in different growth stages. Under different culturing methods, the aroma substances and their changes were different. The samples were divided into two groups for forest cultivation, while the samples were divided into three groups for greenhouse cultivation. At the end of growth, the aroma of S. rugosoannulata with the two cultivation modes was very similar. OPLS-DA clearly distinguished the differences between the two cultivation methods; 17 key aroma difference factors with variable importance projection (VIP) > 1 were obtained from SPLS-DA analysis.

Chemical composition, health benefits, food processing effects and applications of Boletus: a review

Boletus are wild edible mushrooms that are consumed worldwide for their appealing taste and abundant production. The aim of this review was to summarize and discuss the characteristics, effects of food processing and application of Boletus worldwide. A better understanding of Boletus nutritional profiles with high carbohydrate and protein, low fat and energy. Volatile (odor compounds) and nonvolatile (free amino acids, 5'-nucleotide and nucleoside, free sugars, organic acids and umami peptides) compounds together contribute to the flavor of Boletus. Varies bioactive substances such as phenols, flavonoids, polysaccharides, tocopherols, lectins and pigment, have also been identified in Boletus, showing wide spectrum biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, antihyperglycemic and hypotensive activities. In addition, drying, storage and cooking influenced the physical, chemical, sensory properties and biological activities of Boletus. The application of Boletus was focused on food dietary supplement, enhancement of food nutrition and function, indicating Boletus can be further developed as a functional food for human health. Further research suggestions focus on the mechanism of bioactive substances, the novel umami peptides, and the digestion and absorption of Boletus.

Lessons on fruiting body morphogenesis from genomes and transcriptomes of Agaricomycetes

Fruiting bodies (sporocarps, sporophores or basidiomata) of mushroom-forming fungi (Agaricomycetes) are among the most complex structures produced by fungi. Unlike vegetative hyphae, fruiting bodies grow determinately and follow a genetically encoded developmental program that orchestrates their growth, tissue differentiation and sexual sporulation. In spite of more than a century of research, our understanding of the molecular details of fruiting body morphogenesis is still limited and a general synthesis on the genetics of this complex process is lacking. In this paper, we aim at a comprehensive identification of conserved genes related to fruiting body morphogenesis and distil novel functional hypotheses for functionally poorly characterised ones. As a result of this analysis, we report 921 conserved developmentally expressed gene families, only a few dozens of which have previously been reported to be involved in fruiting body development. Based on literature data, conserved expression patterns and functional annotations, we provide hypotheses on the potential role of these gene families in fruiting body development, yielding the most complete description of molecular processes in fruiting body morphogenesis to date. We discuss genes related to the initiation of fruiting, differentiation, growth, cell surface and cell wall, defence, transcriptional regulation as well as signal transduction. Based on these data we derive a general model of fruiting body development, which includes an early, proliferative phase that is mostly concerned with laying out the mushroom body plan (via cell division and differentiation), and a second phase of growth via cell expansion as well as meiotic events and sporulation. Altogether, our discussions cover 1 480 genes of Coprinopsis cinerea, and their orthologs in Agaricus bisporus, Cyclocybe aegerita, Armillaria ostoyae, Auriculariopsis ampla, Laccaria bicolor, Lentinula edodes, Lentinus tigrinus, Mycena kentingensis, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Schizophyllum commune, providing functional hypotheses for ~10 % of genes in the genomes of these species. Although experimental evidence for the role of these genes will need to be established in the future, our data provide a roadmap for guiding functional analyses of fruiting related genes in the Agaricomycetes. We anticipate that the gene compendium presented here, combined with developments in functional genomics approaches will contribute to uncovering the genetic bases of one of the most spectacular multicellular developmental processes in fungi. Citation: Nagy LG, Vonk PJ, Künzler M, Földi C, Virágh M, Ohm RA, Hennicke F, Bálint B, Csernetics Á, Hegedüs B, Hou Z, Liu XB, Nan S, M. Pareek M, Sahu N, Szathmári B, Varga T, Wu W, Yang X, Merényi Z (2023). Lessons on fruiting body morphogenesis from genomes and transcriptomes of Agaricomycetes. Studies in Mycology 104: 1-85. doi: 10.3114/sim.2022.104.01.

Accidental colourful mushroom poisoning - delirium, delusions and dreams

We report a case of a woman presenting with acute onset of delirium following ingestion of Amanita muscaria mushrooms for anxiolytic effect. Immediate diagnosis was obtained after taking a detailed history and confirmation with online poison database images. She fully recovered with supportive treatment and was discharged 24 hours after presentation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case report on A muscaria mushroom poisoning in the UK.

The Luminous Fungi of Japan

Luminous fungi have long attracted public attention in Japan, from old folklore and fiction to current tourism, children's toys, games, and picture books. At present, 25 species of luminous fungi have been discovered in Japan, which correspond to approximately one-fourth of the globally recognized species. This species richness is arguably due to the abundant presence of mycophiles looking to find new mushroom species and a tradition of night-time activities, such as firefly watching, in Japan. Bioluminescence, a field of bioscience focused on luminous organisms, has long been studied by many Japanese researchers, including the biochemistry and chemistry of luminous fungi. A Japanese Nobel Prize winner, Osamu Shimomura (1928-2018), primarily focused on the bioluminescence system of luminous fungi in the latter part of his life, and total elucidation of the mechanism was finally accomplished by an international research team with representatives from Russia, Brazil, and Japan in 2018. In this review, we focused on multiple aspects related to luminous fungi of Japan, including myth, taxonomy, and modern sciences.

Vitamin D Content in Commonly Consumed Mushrooms in Thailand and Its True Retention after Household Cooking

This study investigated the vitamin D level of nine species of cultivated mushrooms and three species of wild mushrooms commonly consumed in Thailand and the effect of cooking on their vitamin D content. Cultivated mushrooms were obtained from three wholesale markets, while wild mushrooms were collected from three trails in a conservation area. Mushrooms from each source were separated into four groups: raw, boiled, stir-fried, and grilled. Different forms of vitamin D were analyzed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The analyzed method demonstrated good linearity, accuracy, and precision, as well as being low in the limit of detection and limit of quantitation. Results showed that vitamin D2 and ergosterol (provitamin D2) were the major forms of vitamin D found in the mushrooms. Both raw cultivated and wild mushrooms had wide ranging ergosterol contents (7713-17,273 μg/100 g edible portion, EP). Lung oyster mushroom and termite mushroom contained high levels of vitamin D2 (15.88 ± 7.31 and 7.15 ± 0.67 μg/100 g EP, respectively), while other mushroom species had negligible amounts (0.06 to 2.31 μg per 100 g EP). True retention (TR) levels of vitamin D2 after boiling, stir-frying, and grilling were not significantly different (p > 0.05) (with estimated marginal means ± standard error 64.0 ± 2.3%, 58.8 ± 2.3%, and 64.7 ± 3.6% TR, respectively). Consuming cooked lung oyster mushrooms, in particular, along with regular exposure to sunlight should be promoted to reduce the incidence of vitamin D deficiency.

"Negative regulation of innate immune signalling by components of the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus"

SCOPE

Mushrooms are valued as an edible and medical resource for millennia. As macrofungi, they possess conserved molecular components recognized by innate immune cells like macrophages, yet unlike pathogenic fungi, they do not trigger the immune system in the same way. That these well-tolerated foods both avoid immuno-surveillance and have positive health benefits, highlights the dearth of information on the interactions of mushroom-derived products with our immune system.

METHODS & RESULTS

Using powders produced from the common white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, it was observed that pre-treatment of mouse and human macrophages with mushroom powders attenuates innate immune signalling triggered by microbial ligands like LPS and  β-glucans, including NFκB activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. This effect of mushroom powders is observed at lower doses of TLR ligands, suggesting a model of competitive inhibition whereby mushroom compounds bind and occupy innate immune receptors, precluding activation by microbial stimuli. This effect is preserved following simulated digestion of the powders. Moreover, in-vivo delivery of mushroom powders attenuates the development of colitis in a DSS-mouse model.

CONCLUSION

Our data highlights an important anti-inflammatory role for powdered A. bisporus mushrooms, which could be further utilized to develop complementary approaches to modulate chronic inflammation and disease. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Development of a gene-targeting system using CRISPR/Cas9 and utilization of pyrG as a novel selectable marker in Lentinula edodes

Firstly, we attempted to recombine the Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) pyrG (ura3) gene homologously by introducing a donor vector containing a carboxin resistance gene (lecbxR) flanked by homologous sequences of pyrG into protoplasts of the fungus. However, all the carboxin-resistant transformants only contained ectopic insertions of the exogenous gene and no homologous insertions. Agaricomycetes are generally known for their low efficiency of homologous recombination, and a similar result was shown for L. edodes. We then co-introduced a Cas9 plasmid vector containing a CRISPR/Cas9 expression cassette targeting pyrG and donor plasmid vector. As a result, ∆pyrG strains containing the expected homologous recombination were obtained. However, only two of the seven ∆pyrG strains had the Cas9 sequence; the others did not. Our results suggest that genome editing occurred via the transient expression of the CRISPR/Cas9 cassette in the Cas9 plasmid vector introduced into the fungal cell. Transforming pyrG into a ∆pyrG strain (strain I8) resulted in prototrophic strains with an efficiency of 6.5 strains/experiment.

A narrative action on the battle against hunger using mushroom, peanut, and soybean-based wastes

Numerous generations have been affected by hunger, which still affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The hunger crisis is worsening although many efforts have been made to minimize it. Besides that, food waste is one of the critical problems faced by most countries worldwide. It has disrupted the food chain system due to inefficient waste management, while negatively impacting the environment. The majority of the waste is from the food production process, resulting in a net zero production for food manufacturers while also harnessing its potential. Most food production wastes are high in nutritional and functional values, yet most of them end up as low-cost animal feed and plant fertilizers. This review identified key emerging wastes from the production line of mushroom, peanut, and soybean (MPS). These wastes (MPS) provide a new source for food conversion due to their high nutritional content, which contributes to a circular economy in the post-pandemic era and ensures food security. In order to achieve carbon neutrality and effective waste management for the production of alternative foods, biotechnological processes such as digestive, fermentative, and enzymatic conversions are essential. The article provides a narrative action on the critical potential application and challenges of MPS as future foods in the battle against hunger.

Three new lanostane-type triterpenes from the epidermis of Wolfiporia cocos

Wolfiporia cocos is commonly used as a traditional Chinese medicine for its diuretic, tonifying, and invigorating effects on the spleen. However, the epidermis of W. cocos is discarded as scrap during harvesting because of its low price, resulting in a great waste of resources and environmental pollution. In this work, the epidermis of W. cocos was studied and three new lanostane triterpenoids were isolated. The structures were determined using NMR and HRESIMS, with absolute configurations established by comparison of the calculated and experimental ECD spectra. The three new compounds were evaluated for their antimicrobial activities in vitro against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. None of the tested compounds showed inhibition against these three strains of indicator microbes at a concentration of 128 μg/ml. This study provides a reference for further medicinal development and the utilization of the epidermis of W. cocos.

The hypothermic nature of fungi

Fungi play essential roles in global health, ecology, and economy, but their thermal biology is relatively unexplored. Mushrooms, the fruiting body of mycelium, were previously noticed to be colder than surrounding air through evaporative cooling. Here, we confirm those observations using infrared thermography and report that this hypothermic state is also observed in mold and yeast colonies. The relatively colder temperature of yeasts and molds is also mediated via evaporative cooling and associated with the accumulation of condensed water droplets on plate lids above colonies. The colonies appear coldest at their center and the surrounding agar appears warmest near the colony edges. The analysis of cultivated Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms revealed that the hypothermic feature of mushrooms can be observed throughout the whole fruiting process and at the level of mycelium. The mushroom's hymenium was coldest, and different areas of the mushroom appear to dissipate heat differently. We also constructed a mushroom-based air-cooling prototype system capable of passively reducing the temperature of a semiclosed compartment by approximately 10 °C in 25 min. These findings suggest that the fungal kingdom is characteristically cold. Since fungi make up approximately 2% of Earth's biomass, their evapotranspiration may contribute to cooler temperatures in local environments.

nov., a novel ascomycetous yeast species isolated from wild mushrooms in Thailand

Two strains of genus Kodamaea, representing a novel anamorphic yeast species, were isolated from two samples of Marasmiellus sp. collected in Thailand. Analysis of the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit (LSU) rRNA gene showed that the two strains differed by 27-42 nucleotide substitutions in the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene and 7-34 nucleotide substitutions in the ITS region of a group of related species, Kodamaea smagusa CBS 11430^T, Kodamaea fungicola JCM 10142^T, Kodamaea plutei ATCC MYA-4329^T, Kodamaea lidongshanica SD5S01^T and Kodamaea jinghongensis NYNU 167162^T. Phylogenetic analysis based on the concatenated sequences of the ITS and the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene showed that the two strains were placed in the Kodamaea clade and clearly separated from other recognized species of the genus. Therefore, the two strains were assigned as a novel species of the genus Kodamaea, for which we propose the name Kodamaea samutsakhonensis f.a., sp. nov. The holotype is TBRC 16043^T (=DMKU-BP19^T) and the isotype is PYCC 9354. The MycoBank number of the novel species is MB 846490.

Agaricus blazei Murill extract-loaded in alginate/poly(vinyl alcohol) films prepared by Ca2+ cross-linking for wound healing applications

This work aimed the development and evaluation of the wound healing activity of films based on sodium alginate, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and Ca²⁺ loaded with Agaricus blazei Murill hydroalcoholic extract (AbE). Firstly, AbE was prepared using a previously standardized methodology. The films were prepared by casting technique and cross-linked with Ca²⁺ using CaCl₂ as cross-linking agent. The physicochemical, morphological and water vapor barrier properties of the films were analyzed and the pre-clinical efficacy was investigated against the cutaneous wound model in mice. The films showed barrier properties to water vapor promising for wound healing. AbE showed physical and chemical interactions between both polymers, noticed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and thermal analysis. The delivery of AbE in alginate/PVA films enhanced the antioxidant and wound healing properties of these polymers. Consequently, a reduction of malondialdehyde levels was observed, as well as an increase of the epidermis/dermis thickness and enhancement in collagen I deposition. Thus, these formulations are promising biomaterials for wound care and tissue repairing.

Enokitake Mushroom and Its Active Component, Adenosine, Which Restores Testosterone Production in Impaired and Fatigued Mouse Models

Several studies have reported the effects of the consumption of various mushroom species on the testes in animal experimental models. Mushrooms, including enokitake mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes), and vegetables contain adenosine may affect testosterone production. Here, we aimed to elucidate the effects of enokitake and its active component, adenosine, on testosterone production in primary cultures of testicular cells in vivo using mice models and in vitro. The administration of enokitake ethanolic extract increased testosterone production in the cisplatin-impaired mouse model. The direct effect of mushroom extracts on testicular cells was examined and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis confirmed that the mushroom- and vegetable-induced increase in testosterone production mainly involved adenosine. Additionally, the administration of enokitake extract or adenosine to wet floor fatigue model mice promoted testicular testosterone production and enhanced Leydig cell function through insulin-like peptide three level upregulation. Structurally related compounds, including cordycepin, showed lower bioactivity than adenosine. This study showed that the ingestion of adenosine-containing mushrooms and vegetables may effectively increase testicular testosterone production. We conclude that mushrooms with a relatively high adenosine content, such as enokitake, may be useful against aging and fatigue.

Heterologous expression of the lectin CmRlec from Cordyceps militaris (Cordycipitaceae, Ascomycota) in Escherichia coli

Ascomycete lectins may play an important role in their life cycle. In this report, we mined a ricin B-type lectin, named CmRlec, from the Cordyceps militaris genome by homology search. Furthermore, we succeeded in the soluble expression of CmRlec using β-glucuronidase as a solubilization tag and demonstrated that this lectin is a novel chitin-recognizing lectin.