Rapid detection of Bacillus anthracis by γ phage amplification and lateral flow immunochromatography

Rapid and Specific Detection of Bacillus cereus Using Phage Protein-Based Lateral Flow Assays

Rapid and precise diagnostic techniques are essential for identifying foodborne pathogens, including Bacillus cereus (B. cereus), which poses significant challenges to food safety. Traditional detection methods are limited by long incubation times and high costs. In this context, gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-based lateral flow assays (LFAs) are emerging as valuable tools for rapid screening. However, the use of antibodies in LFAs faces challenges, including complex production processes, ethical concerns, or variability. Here, we address these challenges by proposing an innovative approach using bacteriophage-derived proteins for pathogen detection on LFAs. We used the engineered endolysin cell-wall-binding domain (CBD) and distal tail proteins (Dit) from bacteriophages that specifically target B. cereus. The protein-binding properties, essential for the formation of efficient capture and detection biointerfaces in LFAs, were extensively characterized from the microstructural to the LFA device level. Machine-learning models leverage knowledge of the protein sequence to predict advantageous protein orientations on the nitrocellulose membrane and AuNPs. The study of the biointerface binding quantified the degree of attachment of AuNPs to bacteria, providing, for the first time, a microscopic model of the number of AuNPs binding to bacteria. It highlighted the binding of up to one hundred 40 nm AuNPs per bacterium in conditions mimicking LFAs. Eventually, phage proteins were demonstrated as efficient bioreceptors in a straightforward LFA prototype combining the two proteins, providing a rapid colorimetric response within 15 min upon the detection of 105 B. cereus cells. Recombinantly produced phage binding proteins present an opportunity to generate a customizable library of proteins with precise binding capabilities, offering a cost-effective and ethical alternative to antibodies. This study enhances our understanding of phage protein biointerfaces, laying the groundwork for their utilization as efficient bioreceptors in LFAs and rapid point-of-care diagnostic assays, thus potentially strengthening public health measures.

Bacteriophage-Based Bioanalysis

Bacteriophages, which are viral predators of bacteria, have evolved to efficiently recognize, bind, infect, and lyse their host, resulting in the release of tens to hundreds of propagated viruses. These abilities have attracted biosensor developers who have developed new methods to detect bacteria. Recently, several comprehensive reviews have covered many of the advances made regarding the performance of phage-based biosensors. Therefore, in this review, we first describe the landscape of phage-based biosensors and then cover advances in other aspects of phage biology and engineering that can be used to make high-impact contributions to biosensor development. Many of these advances are in fields adjacent to analytical chemistry such as synthetic biology, machine learning, and genetic engineering and will allow those looking to develop phage-based biosensors to start taking alternative approaches, such as a bottom-up design and synthesis of custom phages with the singular task of detecting their host.

"Lock-and-key" recognizer-encoded lateral flow assays toward foodborne pathogen detection: An overview of their fundamentals and recent advances

In light of severe health risks of foodborne pathogenic bacterial diseases, the potential utility of point-of-care (POC) sensors is recognized for pathogens detection. In this regard, lateral flow assay (LFA) is a promising and user-friendly option for such application among various technological approaches. This article presents a comprehensive review of "lock-and-key" recognizer-encoded LFAs with respect to their working principles and detection performance against foodborne pathogenic bacteria. For this purpose, we describe various strategies for bacteria recognition including the antibody-based antigen-antibody interactions, nucleic acid aptamer-based recognition, and phage-mediated targeting of bacterial cells. In addition, we also outline the technological challenges along with the prospects for the future development of LFA in food analysis. The LFA devices built based upon many recognition strategies are found to have great potential for rapid, convenient, and effective POC detection of pathogens in complex food matrixes. Future developments in this field should emphasize the development of high-quality bio-probes, multiplex sensors, and intelligent portable readers.

Development of a phage-based electrochemical biosensor for detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7 GXEC-N07

Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7 is one of the most important foodborne pathogens that causing severe foodborne diseases. With the development of foodborne diseases, there is an urgent need to seek new methods for early detection and monitoring of E. coli O157:H7. In this study, an electrochemical biosensor using phage EP01 as the recognition agent for detection of E. coli O157:H7 GXEC-N07 was established due to the specificity and high efficiency of phage EP01 in recognizing GXEC-N07. The biosensor was developed by depositing phages conjugated carboxyl graphene oxide (CFGO) and conductive carbon black (CB) onto the surface of glass carbon electrodes (GCEs). When detecting GXEC-N07 in the concentration range of 10² ∼ 10⁷ CFU/mL, the biosensor showed good linearity with a low detection limit of 11.8 CFU/mL, and the whole progress was in less than 30 min. The biosensor was successfully applied to the quantitative detection of GXEC-N07 in fresh milk and raw pork. The recovery values ranged from 60.8 % to 114.2 %. The biosensor provides a rapid, specific, low cost, and label free tool for E. coli O157:H7 GXEC-N07 detection. It is expected to become a powerful method for the detection of bacteria that threatening food safety and public health security.

Bacteriophage-Based Biosensors: A Platform for Detection of Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens from Food and Environment

Foodborne microorganisms are an important cause of human illness worldwide. Two-thirds of human foodborne diseases are caused by bacterial pathogens throughout the globe, especially in developing nations. Despite enormous developments in conventional foodborne pathogen detection methods, progress is limited by the assay complexity and a prolonged time-to-result. The specificity and sensitivity of assays for live pathogen detection may also depend on the nature of the samples being analyzed and the immunological or molecular reagents used. Bacteriophage-based biosensors offer several benefits, including specificity to their host organism, the detection of only live pathogens, and resistance to extreme environmental factors such as organic solvents, high temperatures, and a wide pH range. Phage-based biosensors are receiving increasing attention owing to their high degree of accuracy, specificity, and reduced assay times. These characteristics, coupled with their abundant supply, make phages a novel bio-recognition molecule in assay development, including biosensors for the detection of foodborne bacterial pathogens to ensure food safety. This review provides comprehensive information about the different types of phage-based biosensor platforms, such as magnetoelastic sensors, quartz crystal microbalance, and electrochemical and surface plasmon resonance for the detection of several foodborne bacterial pathogens from various representative food matrices and environmental samples.

Microfluidic Point-of-Care Testing: Commercial Landscape and Future Directions

Point-of-care testing (POCT) allows physicians to detect and diagnose diseases at or near the patient site, faster than conventional lab-based testing. The importance of POCT is considerably amplified in the trying times of the COVID-19 pandemic. Numerous point-of-care tests and diagnostic devices are available in the market including, but not limited to, glucose monitoring, pregnancy and infertility testing, infectious disease testing, cholesterol testing and cardiac markers. Integrating microfluidics in POCT allows fluid manipulation and detection in a singular device with minimal sample requirements. This review presents an overview of two technologies - (a.) Lateral Flow Assay (LFA) and (b.) Nucleic Acid Amplification - upon which a large chunk of microfluidic POCT diagnostics is based, some of their applications, and commercially available products. Apart from this, we also delve into other microfluidic-based diagnostics that currently dominate the in-vitro diagnostic (IVD) market, current testing landscape for COVID-19 and prospects of microfluidics in next generation diagnostics.

The State of the Art in Biodefense Related Bacterial Pathogen Detection Using Bacteriophages: How It Started and How It's Going

Accurate pathogen detection and diagnosis is paramount in clinical success of treating patients. There are two general paradigms in pathogen detection: molecular and immuno-based, and phage-based detection is a third emerging paradigm due to its sensitivity and selectivity. Molecular detection methods look for genetic material specific for a given pathogen in a sample usually by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Immuno-methods look at the pathogen components (antigens) by antibodies raised against that pathogen specific antigens. There are different variations and products based on these two paradigms with advantages and disadvantages. The third paradigm at least for bacterial pathogen detection entails bacteriophages specific for a given bacterium. Sensitivity and specificity are the two key parameters in any pathogen detection system. By their very nature, bacteriophages afford the best sensitivity for bacterial detection. Bacteria and bacteriophages form the predator-prey pair in the evolutionary arms race and has coevolved over time to acquire the exquisite specificity of the pair, in some instances at the strain level. This specificity has been exploited for diagnostic purposes of various pathogens of concern in clinical and other settings. Many recent reviews focus on phage-based detection and sensor technologies. In this review, we focus on a very special group of pathogens that are of concern in biodefense because of their potential misuse in bioterrorism and their extremely virulent nature and as such fall under the Centers for Disease and Prevention (CDC) Category A pathogen list. We describe the currently available phage methods that are based on the usual modalities of detection from culture, to molecular and immuno- and fluorescent methods. We further highlight the gaps and the needs for more modern technologies and sensors drawing from technologies existing for detection and surveillance of other pathogens of clinical relevance.

Reporter Phage-Based Detection of Bacterial Pathogens: Design Guidelines and Recent Developments

Fast and reliable detection of bacterial pathogens in clinical samples, contaminated food products, and water supplies can drastically improve clinical outcomes and reduce the socio-economic impact of disease. As natural predators of bacteria, bacteriophages (phages) have evolved to bind their hosts with unparalleled specificity and to rapidly deliver and replicate their viral genome. Not surprisingly, phages and phage-encoded proteins have been used to develop a vast repertoire of diagnostic assays, many of which outperform conventional culture-based and molecular detection methods. While intact phages or phage-encoded affinity proteins can be used to capture bacteria, most phage-inspired detection systems harness viral genome delivery and amplification: to this end, suitable phages are genetically reprogrammed to deliver heterologous reporter genes, whose activity is typically detected through enzymatic substrate conversion to indicate the presence of a viable host cell. Infection with such engineered reporter phages typically leads to a rapid burst of reporter protein production that enables highly sensitive detection. In this review, we highlight recent advances in infection-based detection methods, present guidelines for reporter phage construction, outline technical aspects of reporter phage engineering, and discuss some of the advantages and pitfalls of phage-based pathogen detection. Recent improvements in reporter phage construction and engineering further substantiate the potential of these highly evolved nanomachines as rapid and inexpensive detection systems to replace or complement traditional diagnostic approaches.

Advance detection technologies for select biothreat agents

This chapter provides a comprehensive update about various technological developments in the field of biothreat agent detection. We have attempted to provide the reader with all the basic information starting with the culture considered as gold standard of diagnosis, immunological assays like the immunochromatographic test (ICT) which includes the lateral flow rapid strip test, flow through spot test and molecular assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time RT-PCR, isothermal gene amplification assays, next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, etc. One major highlight of the chapter includes bio-monitoring and aerosol generation technologies. We have also provided information about the sensor technologies nanomaterials biosensors, various analytical techniques besides various instrumental technologies like mass spectroscopy and Raman chemical imaging. The last part of the chapter is devoted to some newer technologies like biodetectors where we have given details about those that are currently commercially available.

Pretreatment-Integration for Milk Protein Removal and Device-Facilitated Immunochromatographic Assay for 17 Items

Accurate and comprehensive immunochromatographic assay (ICA) data are urgently required in the daily supervision of plants, schools, testing institutions, and law-enforcing departments. Through pretreatment-integration and device-facilitated operation, a quantitative ICA with high sensitivity and throughput was realized on the basis of a commercialized semi-quantitative ICA strip. Three pretreatment methods, namely, acid base, heavy metal salt, and organic solvent methods, have less than three steps. The pretreatment was established for protein removal. A total of 17 pretreated ICA items in milk were considered for the identification of the most suitable pretreatment method. The items are composed of six items pretreated by the acid-base method, six by the heavy salt method, and five by the organic solvent method. Then, the ICA results with pretreatment were compared with those without pretreatment. After pretreatment, the signal intensity increased by 39%, the detection limit decreased to 12%, the half maximal inhibitory concentration decreased to 18%, and the detection range increased fourfold. A device with mixing and centrifugation functions was designed for the pretreatment-related operations. A pre-incubation sampling device was used to facilitate incubation in batch and high-throughput detection. An ICA reader was used. The detection throughput reached 8 samples per batch or 32 samples per hour. The designed devices were printed through 3D printing and rapid prototyping.

Understanding and Exploiting Phage-Host Interactions

Initially described a century ago by William Twort and Felix d’Herelle, bacteriophages are bacterial viruses found ubiquitously in nature, located wherever their host cells are present. Translated literally, bacteriophage (phage) means ‘bacteria eater’. Phages interact and infect specific bacteria while not affecting other bacteria or cell lines of other organisms. Due to the specificity of these phage–host interactions, the relationship between phages and their host cells has been the topic of much research. The advances in phage biology research have led to the exploitation of these phage–host interactions and the application of phages in the agricultural and food industry. Phages may provide an alternative to the use of antibiotics, as it is well known that the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections has become an epidemic in clinical settings. In agriculture, pre-harvest and/or post-harvest application of phages to crops may prevent the colonisation of bacteria that are detrimental to plant or human health. In addition, the abundance of data generated from genome sequencing has allowed the development of phage-derived bacterial detection systems of foodborne pathogens. This review aims to outline the specific interactions between phages and their host and how these interactions may be exploited and applied in the food industry.

Plasmonic enhancement in lateral flow sensors for improved sensing of E. coli O157:H7

We propose a plasmonic enhanced lateral flow sensor (pLFS) concept with an enhanced colorimetric signal by utilizing liposome encapsulating reagent to trigger the aggregation of gold nanoparticles (GNPs). Our signal enhancement strategy incorporates the simplicity of lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA) utilizing plasmonic enhancement. The conceptualized hybrid pLFS for onsite rapid detection of pathogens in low numbers in a user friendly format requiring simple steps is the first step in the translation of plasmonic enhancement sensing to a practical regime. The pLFS was carried out with a biotinylated liposome label ruptured to release branched polyethylenimine (BPEI) to trigger the aggregation of GNPs for colorimetric signal generation. BPEI has multiple amino groups and more positive charges in PBS buffer, therefore few of the BPEI groups could induce the aggregation of GNPs, resulting in an enhanced colorimetric signal to detect E. coli O157:H7. Compared with the reported conventional LFIA, the proposed pLFS demonstrated more than 1000-fold improvement in sensitivity. The pLFS could detect as low as 100 CFU/ml of E. coli O157:H7 in buffer and 600 CFU/ml E. coli O157:H7 in liquid food systems.

Sensitive detection of live Escherichia coli by bacteriophage amplification-coupled immunoassay on the Luminex® MAGPIX instrument

Phages are natural predators of bacteria and have been exploited in bacterial detection because of their exquisite specificity to their cognate bacterial hosts. In this study, we present a "proof of concept" bacteriophage amplification-coupled assay as a surrogate for detecting a bacterium present in a sample. The assay entails detection of progeny phage resulting from infection and subsequent growth inside the bacterium present in suspected samples. This approach reduces testing time and enhances sensitivity to identify pathogens compared to traditional overnight plaque assay. Further, the assay has the ability to discriminate between live and dead cells since phages require live host cells to infect and replicate. To demonstrate its utility, phage MS2 amplification-coupled, bead-based sandwich type immunoassay on the Luminex® MAGPIX instrument for Escherichia coli detection was performed. The assay not only showed live cell discrimination ability but also a limit of E. coli detection of 1 × 10² cells/mL of live cells after a 3-h incubation. In addition, the sensitivity of the assay was not impaired in the presence of dead cells. These results demonstrate that bacteriophage amplification-coupled assay can be a rapid live cell detection assay compared to traditional culture methods and a promising tool for quick validation of bacterial inactivation. Combined with the unique multiplex bead chemistry of the Luminex® MAGPIX platform, the phage assay can be expanded to be an ultra-deep multiplex assay for the simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens using specific phages directed against the target pathogens.

Bacterial biosensing: Recent advances in phage-based bioassays and biosensors

In nature, different types of bacteria including pathogenic and beneficial ones exist in different habitats including environment, plants, animals, and humans. Among these, the pathogenic bacteria should be detected at earlier stages of infection; however, the conventional bacterial detection procedures are complex and time-consuming. In contrast, the advanced molecular approaches such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have significantly reduced the detection time; nevertheless, such approaches are not acceptable to a large extent and are mostly laborious and expensive. Therefore, the development of fast, inexpensive, sensitive, and specific approaches for pathogen detection is essential for different applications in food industry, clinical diagnosis, biological defense and counter-terrorism. To this end, the novel sensing approaches involving bacteriophages as recognition elements are receiving immense consideration owing to their high degree of specificity, accuracy, and reduced assay times. Besides, the phages are easily produced and are tolerant to extreme pH, temperature, and organic solvents as compared to antibodies. To date, several phage-based assays and sensors have been developed involving different systems such as quartz crystal microbalance, magnetoelastic platform, surface plasmon resonance, and electrochemical methods. This review highlights different taxonomic species and genera of phages infecting eight common disease-causing bacterial genera. It further overviews the most recent advancements in phage-based sensing assays and sensors. Likewise, it elaborates various whole-phage and phage components-based assays. Overall, this review emphasizes the importance of electrochemical biosensors as simple, reliable, cost-effective, and accurate tools for bacterial detection.

Recent advances in bacteriophage-based methods for bacteria detection

Fast and reliable bacteria detection is crucial for lowering the socioeconomic burden related to bacterial infections (e.g., in healthcare, industry or security). Bacteriophages (i.e., viruses with bacterial hosts) pose advantages such as great specificity, robustness, toughness and cheap preparation, making them popular biorecognition elements in biosensors and other assays for bacteria detection. There are several possible designs of bacteriophage-based biosensors. Here, we focus on developments based on whole virions as recognition agents. We divide the review into sections dealing with phage lysis as an analytical signal, phages as capturing elements in assays and phage-based sensing layers, putting the main focus on development reported within the past three years but without omitting the fundamentals.

Synthetic Biology-Based Point-of-Care Diagnostics for Infectious Disease

Infectious diseases outpace all other causes of death in low-income countries, posing global health risks, laying stress on healthcare systems and societies, and taking an avoidable human toll. One solution to this crisis is early diagnosis of infectious disease, which represents a powerful way to optimize treatment, increase patient survival rate, and decrease healthcare costs. However, conventional early diagnosis methods take a long time to generate results, lack accuracy, and are known to seriously underperform with regard to fungal and viral infections. Synthetic biology offers a fast and highly accurate alternative to conventional infectious disease diagnosis. In this review, we outline obstacles to infectious disease diagnostics and discuss two emerging alternatives: synthetic viral diagnostic systems and biosensors. We argue that these synthetic biology-based approaches may overcome diagnostic obstacles in infectious disease and improve health outcomes.

Multiplexed Lateral Flow Test for Detection and Differentiation of Cronobacter sakazakii Serotypes O1 and O2

The ubiquitous and opportunistic pathogen Cronobacter sakazakii is responsible for severe meningitis, sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates and infants associated with ingestion of contaminated powdered infant formula (PIF). The current ISO method for isolation and detection of Cronobacter spp. is laborious, time-consuming and expensive. In this study, a multiplexed lateral flow test strip was developed to rapidly detect and simultaneously serotype O1 and O2 C. sakazakii serotypes. The assay is based on two monoclonal antibodies (MAb) that specifically bind to the lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of these pathogens. The test strip provides results very quickly; C. sakazakii could be detected in pure culture within 15 min with a sensitivity of 107 CFU/ml. After non-selective enrichment for 18 h as low as one Cronobacter cell per g PIF could be detected. Moreover, the established lateral flow assay (LFA) offers excellent specificity showing no cross-reactivity with other C. sakazakii serotypes, Cronobacter species or Enterobacteriaceae tested. These characteristics, together with several advantages such as speed, simplicity in performance, low analysis cost, and no requirement of specialized skills or sophisticated equipment make the developed multiplexed LFA suitable for reliable detection and serotyping of C. sakazakii serotypes O1 and O2.

Detection of Extremely Low Concentrations of Biological Substances Using Near-Field Illumination

An external force-assisted near-field illumination biosensor (EFA-NI biosensor) detects a target substance that is propelled through an evanescent field by an external force. The target substance is sandwiched between an antibody coupled to a magnetic bead and an antibody coupled to a polystyrene bead. The external force is supplied by a magnetic field. The magnetic bead propels the target substance and the polystyrene bead emits an optical signal. The detection protocol includes only two steps; mixing the sample solution with a detection reagent containing the antibody-coated beads and injecting the sample mixture into a liquid cell. Because the system detects the motion of the beads, the sensor allows detection of trace amounts of target substances without a washing step. The detection capability of the sensor was demonstrated by the detection of norovirus virus-like particles at a concentration of ~40 particles per 100 μl in contaminated water.

Rapid Detection of Viable Bacillus anthracis Spores in Environmental Samples by Using Engineered Reporter Phages

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, was utilized as a bioterrorism agent in 2001 when spores were distributed via the U.S. postal system. In responding to this event, the Federal Bureau of Investigation used traditional bacterial culture viability assays to ascertain the extent of contamination of the postal facilities within 24 to 48 h of environmental sample acquisition. Here, we describe a low-complexity, second-generation reporter phage assay for the rapid detection of viableB. anthracis spores in environmental samples. The assay uses an engineered B. anthracis reporter phage (Wβ::luxAB-2) which transduces bioluminescence to infected cells. To facilitate low-level environmental detection and maximize the signal response, expression of luxABin an earlier version of the reporter phage (Wβ::luxAB-1) was optimized. These alterations prolonged signal kinetics, increased light output, and improved assay sensitivity. Using Wβ::luxAB-2, detection of B. anthracis spores was 1 CFU in 8 h from pure cultures and as low as 10 CFU/g in sterile soil but increased to 10(5)CFU/g in unprocessed soil due to an unstable signal and the presence of competing bacteria. Inclusion of semiselective medium, mediated by a phage-expressed antibiotic resistance gene, maintained signal stability and enabled the detection of 10(4)CFU/g in 6 h. The assay does not require spore extraction and relies on the phage infecting germinating cells directly in the soil sample. This reporter phage displays promise for the rapid detection of low levels of spores on clean surfaces and also in grossly contaminated environmental samples from complex matrices such as soils.

Rapid Detection of Listeria by Bacteriophage Amplification and SERS-Lateral Flow Immunochromatography

A rapid Listeria detection method was developed utilizing A511 bacteriophage amplification combined with surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and lateral flow immunochromatography (LFI). Anti-A511 antibodies were covalently linked to SERS nanoparticles and printed onto nitrocellulose membranes. Antibody-conjugated SERS nanoparticles were used as quantifiable reporters. In the presence of A511, phage-SERS nanoparticle complexes were arrested and concentrated as a visible test line, which was interrogated quantitatively by Raman spectroscopy. An increase in SERS intensity correlated to an increase in captured phage-reporter complexes. SERS limit of detection was 6 × 10(6) pfu·mL(-1), offering detection below that obtainable by the naked eye (LOD 6 × 10(7) pfu·mL(-1)). Phage amplification experiments were carried out at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.1 with 4 different starting phage concentrations monitored over time using SERS-LFI and validated by spot titer assay. Detection of L. monocytogenes concentrations of 1 × 10(7) colony forming units (cfu)·mL(-1), 5 × 10(6) cfu·mL(-1), 5 × 10(5) cfu·mL(-1) and 5 × 10(4) cfu·mL(-1) was achieved in 2, 2, 6, and 8 h, respectively. Similar experiments were conducted at a constant starting phage concentration (5 × 10(5) pfu·mL(-1)) with MOIs of 1, 2.5, and 5 and were detected in 2, 4, and 5 h, respectively.