Immunological aspects of heat-shock proteins-the optimum stress of life

Sea water acclimation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) modulates the mucosal transcript immune response induced by Vibrio anguillarum and Aeromonas salmonicida vaccine, and prevents further transcription of stress-immune genes in response to acute stress

Mucosal tissues appear to be more important in fish than in mammals due to living in a microbial-rich aquatic milieu, yet the complex interaction between the immune and the neuroendocrine system in these tissues remains elusive. The aim of this work was to investigate the mucosal immune response in immunized rainbow trout vaccinated with Alpha ject vaccine (bivalent), kept in fresh water (FW) or transferred to seawater (SW), and to evaluate their response to acute stress (chasing). Acute stress resulted in higher levels of plasma cortisol (Sham + Stress and Vaccine + Stress). A similar response was observed in skin mucus, but it was lower in Vaccine + Stress compared with stressed fish. With a few exceptions, minimal alterations were detected in the transcriptomic profile of stress-immune gene in the skin of vaccinated and stressed fish in both FW and SW. In the gills, the stress elicited activation of key stress-immune components (gr1, mr, β-ar, hsp70, c3, lysozyme, α-enolase, nadph oxidase, il1β, il6, tnfα, il10 and tgfβ1) in FW, but fewer immune changes were induced by the vaccine (nadph oxidase, il6, tnfα, il10 and igt) in both SW and FW. In the intestine, an array of immune genes was activated by the vaccine particularly those related with B cells (igm, igt) and T cells (cd8α) in FW with no stimulation observed in SW. Therefore, our survey on the transcriptomic mucosal response demonstrates that the immune protection conferred by the vaccine to the intestine is modulated in SW. Overall, our results showed: i) plasma and skin mucus cortisol showed no additional stress effect induced by prolonged SW acclimation, ii) the stress and immune response were different among mucosal tissues which indicates a tissue-specific response to specific antigens/stressor. Further, the results suggest that the systemic immune organs may be more implicated in infectious events in SW (as few changes were observed in the mucosal barriers of immunized fish in SW) than in FW.

Evaluation of HSP70 levels in ectopic pregnancy, abortus imminens and intrauterine pregnancy

Aim: To assess the serum levels of HSP70 concentrations in ectopic pregnancy (EP) patients compared with abortus imminens (AI) patients and healthy controls. Materials & methods: Age-matched patients were divided into three groups, with 30 patients in each group: EP, AI and healthy intrauterine pregnancy groups. Blood samples were taken from the antecubital vein and kept for HSP70 analysis. Results: The HSP70 levels were higher in the EP group than in AI patients and healthy controls (p < 0.05). The area under the curve for the serum HSP70 assay reached a value of 0.81 for a cutoff point of 11.12 pg/ml, which identified women with EP. Conclusion: Serum HSP70 levels increased in women with EP compared with healthy controls and women with AI.

Molecular Cloning of Heat Shock Protein 60 (SpHSP60) from Schizothorax prenanti and the Gene Expressions of Four SpHSPs during Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Infection

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) play a key role in anti-stress and immune processes and are associated with autoimmune diseases. In order to explore the immunological role of HSPs from Schizothorax prenanti (S. prenanti), SpHSP60 was cloned for the first time in this study, and the gene expressions of SpHSP27, SpHSP60, SpHSP70 and SpHSP90 in the hepatopancreas, head kidney, hindgut and spleen were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) after treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The open reading frame of the SpHSP60 gene (GenBank accession number ON245159) is 1728 bp. It encodes a protein of 575 amino acids. Its C-terminus is a highly conserved and repeated glycine sequence, which is an important cofactor in ATP binding. Compared with the control group, most of the SpHSPs were significantly upregulated in the tissues examined at 12 or 24 h after LPS challenge. The most abundant expression of SpHSP70 was found in the head kidney at 24 h after LPS injection, followed by SpHSP27 in the spleen at 24 h; both of these SpHSPs displayed strong expression under the LPS stresses, about 20–70 fold more than that of SpHSP60 and SpHSP90. The temporal expression patterns of the four SpHSP genes were different in the four tissues examined. Taken together, the results suggest that SpHSP27, SpHSP60, SpHSP70 and SpHSP90 participate in innate immunity stimulated by LPS, and the response intensity of the SpHSPs was organ-specific, indicating they could provide early warning information against bacterial infection. The findings in our study will contribute to better understanding the biological processes and important roles of SpHSPs involved in defending against pathogenic bacterial challenge.

Heat Shock Proteins and Their Role in Pregnancy: Redefining the Function of "Old Rum in a New Bottle"

Pregnancy in humans is a multi-step complex physiological process comprising three discrete events, decidualization, implantation and placentation. Its overall success depends on the incremental advantage that each of the preceding stages passes on to the next. The success of these synchronized sequels of events is an outcome of timely coordination between them. The pregnancy events are coordinated and governed primarily by the ovarian steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which are essentially ligand-activated transcription factors. It's well known that intercellular signaling of steroid hormones engages a plethora of adapter proteins that participate in executing the biological functions. This involves binding of the hormone receptor complex to the DNA response elements in a sequence specific manner. Working with Drosophila melanogaster, the heat shock proteins (HSPs) were originally described by Ferruccio Ritossa back in the early 1960s. Over the years, there has been considerable advancement of our understanding of these conserved families of proteins, particularly in pregnancy. Accumulating evidence suggests that endometrial and uterine cells have an abundance of HSP27, HSP60, HSP70 and HSP90, implying their possible involvement during the pregnancy process. HSPs have been found to be associated with decidualization, implantation and placentation, with their dysregulation associated with implantation failure, pregnancy loss and other feto-maternal complications. Furthermore, HSP is also associated with stress response, specifically in modulating the ER stress, a critical determinant for reproductive success. Recent advances suggest a therapeutic role of HSPs proteins in improving the pregnancy outcome. In this review, we summarized our latest understanding of the role of different members of the HSP families during pregnancy and associated complications based on experimental and clinical evidences, thereby redefining and exploring their novel function with new perspective, beyond their prototype role as molecular chaperones.

Heat Shock Proteins 90 kDa: Immunomodulators and Adjuvants in Vaccine Design Against Infectious Diseases

Heat shock proteins 90 kDa (Hsp90s) were originally identified as stress-responsive proteins and described to participate in several homeostatic processes. Additionally, extracellular Hsp90s have the ability to bind to surface receptors and activate cellular functions related to immune response (cytokine secretion, cell maturation, and antigen presentation), making them very attractive to be studied as immunomodulators. In this context, Hsp90s are proposed as new adjuvants in the design of novel vaccine formulations that require the induction of a cell-mediated immune response to prevent infectious diseases. In this review, we summarized the adjuvant properties of Hsp90s when they are either alone, complexed, or fused to a peptide to add light to the knowledge of Hsp90s as carriers and adjuvants in the design of vaccines against infectious diseases. Besides, we also discuss the mechanisms by which Hsp90s activate and modulate professional antigen-presenting cells.

Effect of vitamin D3 on the immunomodulation of head kidney after Edwardsiella ictaluri challenge in yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco)

Edwardsiella ictaluri (E. ictaluri) causes severe infections in yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco), which leads to a massive loss in the aquaculture industry especially in catfish commercial production. Previous studies have confirmed that vitamin D₃ is essential in immune regulation in mammals. Based on next-generation sequencing, this study explored the immunomodulatory effects of dietary vitamin D₃ on the head kidney of yellow catfish after E. ictaluri challenge. Current results showed that increasing the content of dietary vitamin D₃ within the experimental concentration range (1120IU/kg-16600IU/kg) could reduce the mortality of the yellow catfish after E. ictaluri challenge. Results of the next-generation sequencing showed that dietary vitamin D₃ regulates the immune mechanism of the head kidney mainly through three pathways i.e. negative regulation of interferon-β production, negative regulation of interleukin-6 production and neutrophil chemotaxis. Proteins HSPA8, MAP4K4 and MRC1 may be involved in vitamin D₃-mediated immunoregulation in the head kidney. qPCR results showed that increasing the content of dietary vitamin D₃ can improve the immune function of the yellow catfish by down-regulating ifn-β and pro-inflammatory factors tnf-α, il1-β, il-6, il-8 and up-regulating the anti-inflammatory factor il-10. The above results indicated that dietary addition of vitamin D₃ regulated the immune response in head kidney of yellow catfish and helped the fish to resist the negative effects of infection by E. ictaluri in a dose-dependent manner.

HSP70: an alarmin that does not induce high rates of preterm birth but does cause adverse neonatal outcomes

Objective: Preterm labor and birth are strongly associated with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation, a clinical condition that is proposed to be initiated by danger signals, or alarmins. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the intra-amniotic administration of the alarmin heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) induces preterm labor/birth and adverse neonatal outcomes.Methods: Pregnant mice received an intra-amniotic injection of 200 ng (n = 8), 400 ng (n = 6), 500 ng (n = 10), or 1 µg of HSP70 (n = 6). Control mice were injected with saline (n = 10). Following injection, the rates of preterm labor/birth and neonatal mortality were recorded. Neonatal weights at weeks 1, 2, and 3 were also recorded.Results: The intra-amniotic injection of 400 ng [late preterm birth 16.7 ± 16.7% (1/6)], 500 ng [early and late preterm birth 10 ± 10% (1/10) each], or 1 µg [early preterm birth 16.7 ± 16.7% (1/6)] of HSP70 induced low rates of preterm/birth. However, the intra-amniotic injection of 500 ng or 1 µg of HSP70 induced significantly higher rates of neonatal mortality compared to controls [saline 14.2% (10/74), 200 ng 9.8% (6/61), 400 ng 17.9% (9/45), 500 ng 28.8% (23/78), and 1 µg 21.4% (13/49)]. Neonates born to dams injected with 200, 500 ng, or 1 µg HSP70 were leaner than controls (p ≤ .05).Conclusion: Intra-amniotic administration of the alarmin HSP70 did not induce high rates of preterm labor/birth; yet, it did indeed result in adverse neonatal outcomes.

Cellular stress mechanisms of prenatal maternal stress: Heat shock factors and oxidative stress

Development of the brain prenatally is affected by maternal experience and exposure. Prenatal maternal psychological stress changes brain development and results in increased risk for neuropsychiatric disorders. In this review, multiple levels of prenatal stress mechanisms (offspring brain, placenta, and maternal physiology) are discussed and their intersection with cellular stress mechanisms explicated. Heat shock factors and oxidative stress are closely related to each other and converge with the inflammation, hormones, and cellular development that have been more deeply explored as the basis of prenatal stress risk. Increasing evidence implicates cellular stress mechanisms in neuropsychiatric disorders associated with prenatal stress including affective disorders, schizophrenia, and child-onset psychiatric disorders. Heat shock factors and oxidative stress also have links with the mechanisms involved in other kinds of prenatal stress including external exposures such as environmental toxicants and internal disruptions such as preeclampsia. Integrative understanding of developmental neurobiology with these cellular and physiological mechanisms is necessary to reduce risks and promote healthy brain development.

Pharmacogenetics in inflammatory bowel disease: understanding treatment response and personalizing therapeutic strategies

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and heterogeneous disorder characterized by remitting and relapsing periods of activity. Pharmacogenetics refers to the study of the effect of inheritance on individual variation in drug responses. Several drug-related markers in IBD patients have been identified in order to predict the response to medical treatment including biological therapy as well as the reduction of adverse events. In the future, the treatment of IBD should be personalized in its specific profile to provide the most efficacious treatment with lack of adverse events.

Hsp70 gene expansions in the scallop Patinopecten yessoensis and their expression regulation after exposure to the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella

Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70s) family members are present in virtually all living organisms and perform a fundamental role against different types of environmental stressors and pathogenic organisms. Marine bivalves live in highly dynamic environments and may accumulate paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), a class of well-known neurotoxins closely associated with harmful algal blooms (HABs). Here, we provide a systematic analysis of Hsp70 genes (PyHsp70s) in the genome of Yesso scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis), an important aquaculture species in China, through in silico analysis using transcriptome and genome databases. Phylogenetic analyses indicated extensive expansion of Hsp70 genes from the Hspa12 sub-family in the Yesso scallop and also the bivalve lineages, with gene duplication events before or after the split between the Yesso scallop and the Pacific oyster. In addition, we determined the expression patterns of PyHsp70s after exposure to Alexandrium catenella, the dinoflagellate producing PSTs. Our results confirmed the inducible expression patterns of PyHsp70s under PSTs stress, and the responses to the toxic stress may have arisen through the adaptive recruitment of tandem duplication of Hsp70 genes. These findings provide a thorough overview of the evolution and modification of the Hsp70 family, which will gain insights into the functional characteristics of scallop Hsp70 genes in response to different stresses.

Reduced Hsp70 and Glutamine in Pediatric Severe Malaria Anemia: Role of Hemozoin in Suppressing Hsp70 and NF-κB activation

Severe malarial anemia [SMA, hemoglobin (Hb) <5.0 g/dL] is a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality among children residing in Plasmodium falciparum transmission regions. Exploration of molecular pathways through global gene expression profiling revealed that SMA was characterized by decreased HSPA1A, a heat shock protein (Hsp) 70 coding gene. Hsp70 is a ubiquitous chaperone that regulates Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines known to be important in malaria pathogenesis (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α). Since the role of host Hsp70 in malaria pathogenesis is unexplored, we investigated Hsp70 and molecular pathways in children with SMA. Validation experiments revealed that leukocytic HSP70 transcripts were reduced in SMA relative to non-severe malaria, and that intraleukocytic hemozoin (PfHz) was associated with lower HSP70. HSP70 was correlated with reticulocyte production and Hb. Since glutamine (Gln) up-regulates Hsp70, modulates NF-κB activation, and attenuates over-expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, circulating Gln was measured in children with malaria. Reduced Gln was associated with increased risk of developing SMA. Treatment of cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with PfHz caused a time-dependent decrease in Hsp70 transcripts/protein, and NF-κB activation. Gln treatment of PBMCs overcame PfHz-induced suppression of HSP70 transcripts/protein, reduced NF-κB activation, and suppressed over-expression of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. Findings here demonstrate that SMA is characterized by reduced intraleukocytic HSP70 and circulating Gln, and that PfHz-induced suppression of HSP70 can be reversed by Gln. Thus, Gln supplementation may offer important immunotherapeutic options for futures studies in children with SMA.

HSP90 gene expression induced by aspirin is associated with damage remission in a chicken myocardial cell culture exposed to heat stress

To understand the potential protection of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) induced by aspirin against heat stress damage in chicken myocardial cells, enzyme activities related to stress damage, cytopathological changes, the expression and distribution of HSP90, and HSP90 mRNA levels in the myocardial cells exposed to heat stress (42°C) for different durations with or without aspirin administration (1 mg/ml, 2 h prior) in vitro were investigated. Significant increase of enzyme levels in the supernatant of heat-stressed myocardial cells and cellular lesions characterised by acute degeneration, karyopyknosis and karyorrhexis were observed, compared to non-treated cells. However, the lesions of cells treated with aspirin were milder, characterised by earlier recovery of enzyme levels to the control levels and no obvious heat stress-related cellular necrosis. Stronger positive signals in the cytoplasm and longer retention of HSP90 signal in nuclei were observed in aspirin-treated myocardial cells than those of only heat-stressed cells. HSP90 level in the aspirin-treated myocardial cells was 11.1-fold higher than that in non-treated cells, and remained at a high level at the early stage of heat stress, whereas it was just 4.1-fold higher in only heat-stressed cells and returned rapidly to a low level. Overexpression of HSP90 mRNA in aspirin-treated cells was observed throughout the experiment, whereas HSP90 mRNA decreased significantly only in heat-stressed cells. The early higher HSP90 expression induced by aspirin during heat stress was accompanied by decreased heat stress damage, suggesting that aspirin might play an important role in preventing myocardial cells from heat stress damage in vitro.

The association of Hsp90 expression induced by aspirin with anti-stress damage in chicken myocardial cells

The protective effect of aspirin during exposure to heat stress in broiler chickens was investigated. We assayed pathological damage, expression and distribution of Hsp90 protein and hsp90 mRNA expression in chicken heart tissues after oral administration of aspirin following exposure to high temperature for varying times. Heat stress induced increases in plasma aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase activities while causing severe heart damage, which was characterized by granular and vacuolar degeneration, nuclear shrinkage and even myocardium fragmentation in cardiac muscle fibers. After aspirin administration, myocardial cells showed fewer pathological lesions than broilers treated with heat alone. A high positive Hsp90 signal was always detected in the nuclei of myocardial cells from broilers treated with aspirin, while in myocardial cells treated with heat alone, Hsp90 in the nuclei decreased, as did that in the cytoplasm. Aspirin induced rapid and significant synthesis of Hsp90 before and at the initial phase of heat stress, and significant expression of hsp90 mRNA was stimulated throughout the experiment when compared with cells exposed to heat stress alone. Thus, specific pre-induction of Hsp90 in cardiovascular tissue was useful for resisting heat stress damage because it produced stable damage-related enzymes and fewer pathologic changes.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of papilla and skin in the sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus

Papilla and skin are two important organs of the sea cucumber. Both tissues have ectodermic origin, but they are morphologically and functionally very different. In the present study, we performed comparative transcriptome analysis of the papilla and skin from the sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) in order to identify and characterize gene expression profiles by using RNA-Seq technology. We generated 30.6 and 36.4 million clean reads from the papilla and skin and de novo assembled in 156,501 transcripts. The Gene Ontology (GO) analysis indicated that cell part, metabolic process and catalytic activity were the most abundant GO category in cell component, biological process and molecular funcation, respectively. Comparative transcriptome analysis between the papilla and skin allowed the identification of 1,059 differentially expressed genes, of which 739 genes were expressed at higher levels in papilla, while 320 were expressed at higher levels in skin. In addition, 236 differentially expressed unigenes were not annotated with any database, 160 of which were apparently expressed at higher levels in papilla, 76 were expressed at higher levels in skin. We identified a total of 288 papilla-specific genes, 171 skin-specific genes and 600 co-expressed genes. Also, 40 genes in papilla-specific were not annotated with any database, 2 in skin-specific. Development-related genes were also enriched, such as fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor-β, collagen-α2 and Integrin-α2, which may be related to the formation of the papilla and skin in sea cucumber. Further pathway analysis identified ten KEGG pathways that were differently enriched between the papilla and skin. The findings on expression profiles between two key organs of the sea cucumber should be valuable to reveal molecular mechanisms involved in the development of organs that are related but with morphological differences in the sea cucumber.

Update on pathogenesis and predictors of response of therapeutic strategies used in inflammatory bowel disease

The search for biomarkers that characterize specific aspects of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), has received substantial interest in the past years and is moving forward rapidly with the help of modern technologies. Nevertheless, there is a direct demand to identify adequate biomarkers for predicting and evaluating therapeutic response to different therapies. In this subset, pharmacogenetics deserves more attention as part of the endeavor to provide personalized medicine. The ultimate goal in this area is the adjustment of medication for a patient’s specific genetic background and thereby to improve drug efficacy and safety rates. The aim of the following review is to utilize the latest knowledge on immunopathogenesis of IBD and update the findings on the field of Immunology and Genetics, to evaluate the response to the different therapies. In the present article, more than 400 publications were reviewed but finally 287 included based on design, reproducibility (or expectancy to be reproducible and translationable into humans) or already measured in humans. A few tests have shown clinical applicability. Other, i.e., genetic associations for the different therapies in IBD have not yet shown consistent or robust results. In the close future it is anticipated that this, cellular and genetic material, as well as the determination of biomarkers will be implemented in an integrated molecular diagnostic and prognostic approach to manage IBD patients.

Increased levels of anti-heat-shock protein 60 (anti-Hsp60) indicate endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases in patients with mixed connective tissue disease

Heat-shock protein 60 (Hsp60) has been shown to provoke inflammation, and anti-Hsp60 may facilitate the development of atherosclerosis. In this study, we have investigated 30 patients with mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD) and assessed anti-Hsp60 and their relationship to cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Out of 30 patients with MCTD, 15 had CVDs. Anti-Hsp60 antibody was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Since endothelial dysfunction and accelerated atherosclerosis are characteristic to MCTD, a wide array of MCTD-, endothelial dysfunction- and CVD-associated parameters was investigated: serum lipid levels, paraoxonase activity (PON1), rich nuclear ribonucleoprotein U1 (anti-U1RNP), anti-endothelial cell antibodies, anti-cardiolipin and anti-β2-glycoprotein I antibody isotypes (anti-CL and anti-β2GPI), endothelin-1 (ET-1) levels, also intima-media thickness (IMT), a quantitative indicator of atherosclerosis. In MCTD, anti-Hsp60 antibody levels were significantly higher than in healthy individuals (p < 0.02). MCTD patients with CVD had significantly higher levels of anti-Hsp60 compared to MCTD without CVD (p = 0.001). Patients with MCTD had significantly lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (p = 0.02) and PON activity (p < 0.001), and significantly increased systolic (p < 0.0002) and diastolic (p < 0.001) blood pressure compared to healthy individuals. Anti-U1RNP levels (p < 0.002) and IMT were higher in patients compared to controls (p = 0.002). The CVD-positive MCTD patients had increased anti-Hsp60 (p < 0.0013), anti-CL IgG (p = 0.0005), ET-1 serum concentration (p < 0.05) and IMT levels (p < 0.001) compared to MCTD patients without CVD. Anti-Hsp60 showed a strong correlation with anti-oxLDL (r = 0.36, p = 0.01) and serum ET-1 (r = 0.62, p < 0.001) and negative correlation with PON activity (r = -0.47, p = 0.01). Anti-Hsp60 indicates endothelial injury, CVD, and can function as a novel atherosclerotic risk factor, also a valuable diagnostic marker in patients with MCTD.

Acute isoproterenol induces anxiety-like behavior in rats and increases plasma content of extracellular vesicles

Several clinical observations have demonstrated a link between heart rate and anxiety or panic disorders. In these patients, β-adrenergic receptor function was altered. This prompted us to investigate whether the β-adrenergic receptor agonist isoproterenol, at a dose that stimulates peripheral β-adrenergic system but has no effects at the central nervous system, can induce anxiety-like behavior in rats. Moreover, some possible messengers involved in the peripheral to brain communication were investigated. Our results showed that isoproterenol (5 mg kg(-1) i.p.) increased heart rate, evoked anxiety-like behavior, did not result in motor impairments and increased extracellular vesicle content in the blood. Plasma corticosterone level was unmodified as well as vesicular Hsp70 content. Vesicular miR-208 was also unmodified indicating a source of increased extracellular vesicles different from cardiomyocytes. We can hypothesize that peripheral extracellular vesicles might contribute to the β-adrenergic receptor-evoked anxiety-like behavior, acting as peripheral signals in modulating the mental state.

Escherichia coli-induced temporal and differential secretion of heat-shock protein 70 and interleukin-1β by human fetal membranes in a two-compartment culture system

INTRODUCTION

Escherichia coli is recognized as an etiological bacteria associated with chorioamnionitis and the preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes. This pathological condition induces pro-inflammatory cytokines and degradative metalloproteinases, which are considered biological markers secreted in an acute stage of infection. Heat-shock proteins (HSPs) are an important component of the innate immunity response and are found in different pathological conditions. They have not been previously measured in human fetal membranes in response to infectious conditions. We hypothesized that the choriodecidual tissue and amniotic epithelium secreted temporal and differential Hsp-60, Hsp-70, and interleukin (IL)-1β mediated by E. coli infection.

METHODS

Fetal membranes were mounted in a two-compartment culture system and infected with two passes of live E. coli at different doses (10², 10⁴, 10⁵, and 10⁶ colony-forming units (CFU)/mL) and intervals of incubation (3, 6, and 24 h). The culture medium was collected, and Hsp-60, Hsp-70, and IL-1β were assessed using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method.

RESULTS

After 3 and 6 h of infection, E. coli induced an increase in Hsp-70 secretion in the choriodecidual tissue. However, after 24 h of incubation, Hsp-70 was downregulated and we observed an increase in IL-1β secretion. By contrast, E. coli induced a lower Hsp-60 secretion in the amnion compared to Hsp-70.

DISCUSSION

Human fetal membranes responded actively to E. coli infection, with an increase in Hsp-70 during the first hours of infection. After 24 h, there was an increase in the liberation of IL-1β.

Mycobacterium leprae Hsp65 administration reduces the lifespan of aged high antibody producer mice

BACKGROUND

Aging process may result in immune modifications that lead to disruption of innate and acquired immunity mechanisms that may induce chronic-degenerative events. The heat shock proteins (Hsp), phylogeneticaly conserved among organisms, present as main function the ability of folding and refolding proteins, but they also are associated with chronic-degenerative disorders. Here were evaluated the role of M. leprae native Hsp65 (WT) and its point-mutated (K409A) on survival and anti-DNA and anti-Hsp65 antibody production of aged genetically selected mice for high (HIII) and low (LIII) antibody production; data from 120- and 270-days old mice (named "adult" or "aged", respectively) were compared.

RESULTS

WT Hsp65 administration induces reduction in the mean survival time of adult and aged female HIII mice, this effect being stronger in aged individuals. Surprisingly, the native protein administration increased the survival of aged female LIII when compared to K409A and control groups. No survival differences were observed in aged male mice after Hsp65 proteins inoculation. We observed increase in IgG1 anti-Hsp65 in WT and K409A aged HIII female mice groups and no marked changes in the anti-DNA (adult and aged HIII) and anti-Hsp65 IgG1 or IgG2a isotypes production in adult HIII female and aged male mice. LIII male mice presented increased anti-DNA and anti-Hsp65 IgG2a isotype production after WT or K409A injection, and LIII female groups showed no alterations.

CONCLUSIONS

The results revealed that the WT Hsp65 interferes with survival of aged HIII female mice without involvement of a remarkable IgG1 and IgG2a anti-DNA and anti-Hsp65 antibodies production. The deleterious effects of Hsp65 on survival time in aged HIII female mice could be linked to a gender-effect and are in agreement with those previously reported in lupus-prone mice.

Heat shock protein complex vaccination induces protection against Helicobacter pylori without exogenous adjuvant

BACKGROUND

The development of a vaccine against the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori, the main causative agent of gastric adenocarcinoma, has been hampered by a number of issues, including the lack of a mucosal adjuvant for use in humans. Heat shock proteins (Hsp), highly conserved molecules expressed by both bacteria and mammalian species, possess a range of functions, including acting as chaperones for cellular proteins and the ability to activate innate immune receptors. Hsp complex (HspC) vaccines, containing Hsp derived from pathogenic bacteria, are immunostimulatory without addition of an exogenous adjuvant and can induce immunity against their chaperoned proteins. In this study we explored in mice the potential utility of a H. pylori HspC vaccine.

RESULTS

Vaccination with H. pylori HspC, by either the subcutaneous or respiratory mucosal route, induced a strong antibody response, elevated gastric cytokine levels and significant protection against subsequent live challenge with this pathogen. The level of protection induced by non-adjuvanted HspC vaccine was equivalent to that which resulted from vaccination with adjuvanted vaccines. While protection induced by immunisation with adjuvanted vaccines was associated with the development of a moderate to severe atrophic gastritis, that induced by H. pylori HspC only resulted in a mild inflammatory response, despite an increase in pro-inflammatory gastric cytokines. This reduced gastritis correlated with an increase in IL-10 and IL-13 levels in the gastric tissues of HspC vaccinated, H. pylori challenged mice.

CONCLUSIONS

H. pylori HspC vaccines have the potential to overcome some of the issues preventing the development of a human vaccine against this pathogen: HspC induced protective immunity against H. pylori without addition of an adjuvant and without the induction of a severe inflammatory response. However, complete protection was not obtained so further optimisation of this technology is needed if a human vaccine is to become a reality.

Metabolic, hormonal and stress-related molecular changes in post-mortem pituitary glands from schizophrenia subjects

OBJECTIVES

To identify a molecular profile for schizophrenia using post-mortem pituitaries from schizophrenia and control subjects.

METHODS

Molecular profiling analysis of pituitaries from schizophrenia (n = 14) and control (n = 15) subjects was carried out using a combination of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS(E)), multiplex analyte profiling (MAP), two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) and Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

This led to identification of differentially expressed molecules in schizophrenia patients including hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis-associated constituents such as cortisol, pro-adrenocorticotropic hormone, arginine vasopressin precursor, agouti-related protein, growth hormone, prolactin and secretagogin, as well as molecules associated with lipid transport and metabolism such as apolipoproteins A1, A2, C3 and H. Altered levels of secretagogin in serum from a cohort of living first onset schizophrenia patients were also detected, suggesting disease association and illustrating the potential for translating some components of this molecular profile to serum-based assays.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies on the molecules identified here may lead to new insights into schizophrenia pathophysiology and pave the way for translation of novel diagnostics for use in a clinical setting.

Heat shock protein 70 kDa (HSP70) increase in sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L 1758) thymus after vaccination against Listonella anguillarum

Heat shock proteins 70 kDa (HSP70) and apoptosis were investigated in thymus of sea bass juveniles (Dicentrarchus labrax) subsequently to a vaccination against Listonella (syn. Vibrio) anguillarum. HSP70 expression was measured by immunohistochemistry and immunoenzymatic methods, resulting in increase in HSP70 after bath immunization and persistent in fish exposed to an intraperitoneal (i.p.) booster. The HSP70 increase in thymus was suggested as induction in lymphocytic cells, to be related to immune system stimulation after vaccination. However, a thymic recruitment of lymphocyte subpopulations, characterized by higher expression of HSP70, was also hypothesized after vaccination. No apparent relationships were found between HSP70 and apoptosis. In fact, the vaccination did not modulate the apoptosis response, as measured by TUNEL assay and by immunohistochemistry for active caspase-3 expression. The lack of apoptosis effects could be ascribed to the use of inactivated bacteria that appeared not able to interfere with programmed cell death mechanisms. This manuscript aims to contribute to the knowledge of some biochemical features underlying the immunization, with a particular emphasis on the modulation of HSP70. However, further parameters involved in innate/adaptative immunity and apoptosis pathways have to be taken into account to well establish the functional role of HSP70 in fish vaccination.

Effects of cyclic heat stress or vitamin C supplementation during cyclic heat stress on HSP70, inflammatory cytokines, and the antioxidant defense system in Sprague Dawley rats

A total of 21 male SD rats were divided into three groups to investigate the effects of consecutive cyclic heat stress or vitamin C under heat stress on heat shock protein (HSP) 70, inflammatory cytokines, and antioxidant systems. The heat stress (HS) and vitamin C supplementation during heat stress (HS+VC) groups were exposed to cyclic heat stress (23 to 38 to 23°C) for 2 h on each of seven consecutive days. The HS+VC group had free access to water containing 0.5% vitamin C throughout the experiment. Hepatic HSP70 mRNA in the HS group was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that in the control (CON) or HS+VC group. The mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the HS group were greater (P<0.05) than those in the CON group. The HS+VC group showed significantly (P<0.05) lower mRNA levels of hepatic interleukin-6 and TNF-α than the HS group. However, thymic HSP70 and inflammatory cytokines were unaffected by treatments. In the hepatic antioxidant system, the mRNA and activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) were greater (P<0.05) in the HS than in the CON group, whereas the HS+VC group showed markedly (P<0.05) lower GPX mRNA and activity than the HS group. However, superoxide dismutase, glutathione S-transferase, and malondialdehyde were unaffected by treatments. In conclusion, cyclic heat stress activated hepatic HSP70, TNF-α, iNOS, and GPX genes, whereas vitamin C during heat stress ameliorated heat stress-induced cellular responses in rats.

Stress-induced facilitation of host response to bacterial challenge in F344 rats is dependent on extracellular heat shock protein 72 and independent of alpha beta T cells

Activation of the in vivo stress response can facilitate antibacterial host defenses. One possible mechanism for this effect is stress-induced release of heat shock protein 72 (Hsp72) into the extracellular environment. Hsp72 is a ubiquitous cellular protein that is up-regulated in response to cellular stress, and modulates various aspects of immune function including macrophage inflammatory/bactericidal responses and T-cell function when found in the extracellular environment. The current study tested the hypothesis that in vivo extracellular Hsp72 (eHsp72) at the site of inflammation contributes to stress-induced restricted development of bacteria, and facilitated recovery from bacteria-induced inflammation, and that this effect is independent of alpha beta (αβ) T cells. Male F344 rats were exposed to either inescapable electrical tail-shocks or no stress, and subcutaneously injected with Escherichia coli (ATCC 15746). The role of eHsp72 was investigated by Hsp72-immunoneutralization at the inflammatory site. The potential contribution of T cells was examined by testing male athymic (rnu/rnu) nude rats lacking mature αβ T cells and heterozygous thymic intact control (rnu/+) rats. The results were that stressor exposure increased plasma concentrations of eHsp72 and facilitated recovery from bacterial inflammation. Immunoneutralization of eHsp72 at the inflammatory site attenuated this effect. Stressor exposure impacted bacterial inflammation and eHsp72 equally in both athymic and intact control rats. These results support the hypothesis that eHsp72 at the site of inflammation, and not αβ T cells, contributes to the effect of stressor exposure on subcutaneous bacterial inflammation.

Pathology-dependent effects linked to small heat shock proteins expression: an update

Small heat shock proteins (small Hsps) are stress-induced molecular chaperones that act as holdases towards polypeptides that have lost their folding in stress conditions or consequently of mutations in their coding sequence. A cellular protection against the deleterious effects mediated by damaged proteins is thus provided to cells. These chaperones are also highly expressed in response to protein conformational and inflammatory diseases and cancer pathologies. Through specific and reversible modifications in their phospho-oligomeric organization, small Hsps can chaperone appropriate client proteins in order to provide cells with resistance to different types of injuries or pathological conditions. By helping cells to better cope with their pathological status, their expression can be either beneficial, such as in diseases characterized by pathological cell degeneration, or deleterious when they are required for tumor cell survival. Moreover, small Hsps are actively released by cells and can act as immunogenic molecules that have dual effects depending on the pathology. The cellular consequences linked to their expression levels and relationships with other Hsps as well as therapeutic strategies are discussed in view of their dynamic structural organization required to interact with specific client polypeptides.

Metabolic and hormonal acclimation to heat stress in domesticated ruminants

Environmentally induced periods of heat stress decrease productivity with devastating economic consequences to global animal agriculture. Heat stress can be defined as a physiological condition when the core body temperature of a given species exceeds its range specified for normal activity, which results from a total heat load (internal production and environment) exceeding the capacity for heat dissipation and this prompts physiological and behavioral responses to reduce the strain. The ability of ruminants to regulate body temperature is species- and breed-dependent. Dairy breeds are typically more sensitive to heat stress than meat breeds, and higher-producing animals are more susceptible to heat stress because they generate more metabolic heat. During heat stress, ruminants, like other homeothermic animals, increase avenues of heat loss and reduce heat production in an attempt to maintain euthermia. The immediate responses to heat load are increased respiration rates, decreased feed intake and increased water intake. Acclimatization is a process by which animals adapt to environmental conditions and engage behavioral, hormonal and metabolic changes that are characteristics of either acclimatory homeostasis or homeorhetic mechanisms used by the animals to survive in a new 'physiological state'. For example, alterations in the hormonal profile are mainly characterized by a decline and increase in anabolic and catabolic hormones, respectively. The response to heat load and the heat-induced change in homeorhetic modifiers alters post-absorptive energy, lipid and protein metabolism, impairs liver function, causes oxidative stress, jeopardizes the immune response and decreases reproductive performance. These physiological modifications alter nutrient partitioning and may prevent heat-stressed lactating cows from recruiting glucose-sparing mechanisms (despite the reduced nutrient intake). This might explain, in large part, why decreased feed intake only accounts for a minor portion of the reduced milk yield from environmentally induced hyperthermic cows. How these metabolic changes are initiated and regulated is not known. It also remains unclear how these changes differ between short-term v. long-term heat acclimation to impact animal productivity and well-being. A better understanding of the adaptations enlisted by ruminants during heat stress is necessary to enhance the likelihood of developing strategies to simultaneously improve heat tolerance and increase productivity.

Relationship between pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines profiles and some haematological parameters in some Cameroonians infected with Onchocerca volvulus

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between white blood cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, and Interleukin(IL)-1 α, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-13 production in Cameroonians with Onchocerca volvulus (O. volvulus) infection.

METHODS

A total of 357 individuals from five sites at Upper Sanga, Lekkie, Nyong, Kelle and Sanaga Maritime divisions and located along Sanaga valley of Sanaga River in South Cameroon were screened for the presence of O. volvulus using the skin snip. The levels of the interleukins (IL-) namely IL-1 α, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-13 were evaluated using enzyme linked immunoabsorbent assay techniques. Haematological parameters were evaluated using standard laboratory automated analyser.

RESULTS

O. volvulus microfilariae were found in skin tissues of 85 (23.81%) volunteers. The mean interleukin (IL-) levels in the O. volvulus control and infected individuals were IL-1 α in (1.65 ± 0.79 and 2.31 ± 0.5) pg/mL; IL-6 in (278.36 ± 55.34 and 201.74 ± 34.56) pg/mL; IL-10 in (436.03 ± 208.64 and 418.49 ± 147.88) pg/mL and IL-13 in (8.98 ± 7.28 and 38.06 ± 11.92) pg/mL. There was a negative correlation between monocyte counts and IL-10 concentration in positive individuals. A negative correlation of IL-6 with white blood cell and lymphocyte counts was observed (P<0.05). The level of IL-13 was positively associated with microfilarial load (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

We observed depressed IL-6 and raised IL-13 concentrations in the sera of individuals with onchocerciasis which implicate these interleukins in the immunological responses of the disease. Therefore, these IL-6 and IL-13 are associated with O. volvulus infection among Cameroonians.

Heat shock proteins are therapeutic targets in autoimmune diseases and other chronic inflammatory conditions

INTRODUCTION

Exploitation of antigen-specific regulatory T cells (Tregs) as critical regulators in the control of chronic inflammatory diseases is hampered by the obscure nature of most disease-relevant autoantigens. Heat shock proteins (Hsp) are possible targets for Tregs due to their enhanced expression in inflamed (stressed) tissues and there is evidence that Hsp can induce anti-inflammatory immunoregulatory T-cell responses.

AREAS COVERED

Recent publications showing that exogenous administration of stress proteins has induced immunoregulation in various models of inflammatory disease have also been shown to be effective in first clinical trials in humans. Now, in the light of a growing interest in T-cell regulation, it is of interest to further explore the mechanisms through which Hsp can be utilized to trigger immunoregulatory pathways, capable of suppressing such a wide and diversified spectrum of inflammatory diseases.

EXPERT OPINION

Therapeutic approaches via exploitation of antigen-specific Tregs will benefit from tailor-made combination therapies. Combining current therapeutic approaches with Hsp-specific therapies thereby enhancing natural immune regulation might expedite the entry of antigen-specific regulatory T cells into the therapeutic arsenal of the anti-inflammatory therapeutics.

Immunological role of thiol-dependent peroxiredoxin gene in Macrobrachium rosenbergii

In this study, we have reported a full length of peroxiredoxin (designated MrPrdx) gene, identified from the transcriptome of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. The complete gene sequence of the MrPrdx is 940 base pairs in length, and encodes 186 amino acids. MrPrdx contains a long thioredoxin domain in the amino acid sequence between 34 and 186. The gene expressions of MrPrdx in healthy and the infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) challenged M. rosenbergii were examined using quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction. MrPrdx is highly expressed in all the other tissues of M. rosenbergii considered for analysis and the highest in gills. The expression is strongly up-regulated in gills after IHHNV infection. To understand MrPrdx functional properties, the recombinant MrPrdx protein was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and purified. A peroxidise activity assay was conducted using recombinant MrPrdx protein at different concentrations. This peroxidises activity showed that the recombinant MrPrdx is a thiol-dependant protein. Additionally, this result showed that recombinant MrPrdx protein, as a secretory protein can remove H₂O₂ and protect DNA damage. This finding leads a possible way to propose the recombinant MrPrdx protein as an effective medicine for reactive oxygen species (ROS) related diseases.

Molecular cloning, characterization and gene expression of an antioxidant enzyme catalase (MrCat) from Macrobrachium rosenbergii

In this study, we reported a full length of catalase gene (designated as MrCat), identified from the transcriptome database of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. The complete gene sequence of the MrCat is 2504 base pairs in length, and encodes 516 amino acids. The MrCat protein contains three domains such as catalase 1 (catalase proximal heme-ligand signature) at 350-358, catalase 2 (catalase proximal active site signature) at 60-76 and catalase 3 (catalase family profile) at 20-499. The mRNA expressions of MrCat in healthy and the infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) challenged M. rosenbergii were examined using quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The MrCat is highly expressed in digestive tract and all the other tissues (walking leg, gills, muscle, hemocyte, hepatopancreas, pleopods, brain and eye stalk) of M. rosenbergii taken for analysis. The expression is strongly up-regulated in digestive tract after IHHNV challenge. To understand its biological activity, the recombinant MrCat gene was constructed and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The recombinant MrCat existed in high thermal stability and broad spectrum of pH, which showed over 95% enzyme activity between pH 5 and 10.5, and was stable from 40 °C to 70 °C, and exhibited 85-100% enzyme activity from 30 °C to 40 °C.

The effect of pre-existing maternal obesity on the placental proteome: two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry

Our aim was to study the protein expression profiles of placenta obtained from lean and obese pregnant women with normal glucose tolerance at the time of term Caesarean section. We used two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE), utilising narrow-range immobilised pH gradient strips that encompassed the broad pH range of 4-5 and 5-6, followed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry of selected protein spots. Western blot and quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analyses were performed to validate representative findings from the 2D-DIGE analysis. Eight proteins were altered (six down-regulated and two up-regulated on obese placentas). Annexin A5 (ANXA5), ATP synthase subunit beta, mitochondria (ATPB), brain acid soluble protein 1 (BASP1), ferritin light chain (FTL), heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein C (HNRPC) and vimentin (VIME) were all lower in obese patients. Alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) and stress-70 protein, mitochondrial (GRP75) were higher in obese patients. Western blot analysis of ANXA5, ATPB, FTL, VIME, A1AT and GRP75 confirmed the findings from the 2D-DIGE analysis. For brain acid soluble protein 1 and HNRPC, qRT-PCR analysis also confirmed the findings from the 2D-DIGE analysis. Immunohistochemical analysis was also used to determine the localisation of the proteins in human placenta. In conclusion, proteomic analysis of placenta reveals differential expression of several proteins in patients with pre-existing obesity. These proteins are implicated in a variety of cellular functions such as regulation of growth, cytoskeletal structure, oxidative stress, inflammation, coagulation and apoptosis. These disturbances may have significant implications for fetal growth and development.

Association of fetuin-A and heat shock protein 70 with arterial calcification in patients with peripheral vascular disease

Atherosclerosis may present with arterial calcification, which is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Fetuin-A plays a role in the inhibition of extraosseal calcification, and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is elevated in peripheral artery disease. The aim of our study was to examine the potential role of fetuin-A and Hsp70 in the inhibition of arterial calcification in atherosclerotic patients. Classical risk factors of atherosclerosis as well as the severity of arterial calcification and atherosclerosis were assessed by ultrasound, angiography, and serum analysis in a cross-sectional study of patients with carotid stenosis, aortic aneurysm, and lower extremity atherosclerosis. We demonstrate that there is an inverse correlation between serum fetuin-A levels and the severity of arterial calcification in patients with chronic atherosclerotic lower extremity disease without renal disease or infection. Our data suggest that it is not end-stage renal disease and dialysis that explains the earlier reported association of low fetuin-A level and arterial calcification. The novel finding of our study is the significantly different serum fetuin-A levels in patients with aortic aneurysm of different etiologies (atherosclerosis and Marfan syndrome). Our results suggest that there is an association between serum fetuin-A levels and the severity of arterial calcification also in patients without renal failure.

Proteomic analysis of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes subjected to heat shock

Trypanosoma cruzi is exposed to sudden temperature changes during its life cycle. Adaptation to these variations is crucial for parasite survival, reproduction, and transmission. Some of these conditions may change the pattern of genetic expression of proteins involved in homeostasis in the course of stress treatment. In the present study, the proteome of T. cruzi epimastigotes subjected to heat shock and epimastigotes grow normally was compared by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by mass spectrometry for protein identification. Twenty-four spots differing in abundance were identified. Of the twenty-four changed spots, nineteen showed a greater intensity and five a lower intensity relative to the control. Several functional categories of the identified proteins were determined: metabolism, cell defense, hypothetical proteins, protein fate, protein synthesis, cellular transport, and cell cycle. Proteins involved in the interaction with the cellular environment were also identified, and the implications of these changes are discussed.

Hsp10, Hsp70, and Hsp90 immunohistochemical levels change in ulcerative colitis after therapy

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a form of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) characterized by damage of large bowel mucosa and frequent extra-intestinal autoimmune comorbidities. The role played in IBD pathogenesis by molecular chaperones known to interact with components of the immune system involved in inflammation is unclear. We previously demonstrated that mucosal Hsp60 decreases in UC patients treated with conventional therapies (mesalazine, probiotics), suggesting that this chaperonin could be a reliable biomarker useful for monitoring response to treatment, and that it might play a role in pathogenesis. In the present work we investigated three other heat shock protein/molecular chaperones: Hsp10, Hsp70, and Hsp90. We found that the levels of these proteins are increased in UC patients at the time of diagnosis and decrease after therapy, supporting the notion that these proteins deserve attention in the study of the mechanisms that promote the development and maintenance of IBD, and as biomarkers of this disease (e.g., to monitor response to treatment at the histological level).

Diesel exhaust inhalation induces heat shock protein 70 expression in vivo

Exposure to urban air pollution is an independent risk factor for increased cardiovascular diseases. Heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of vascular dysfunction and cardiovascular diseases. This study has been designed to determine whether inhalation of urban air induces HSP70 expression in the lung and blood as well as the association of HSP70 and air pollution-induced vascular dysfunction. Apolipoprotein E (Apo-E) deficient mice were exposed to diesel exhaust (DE) either acutely (3 days, 200 or 400 µg/m(3) for 6 h/day) or chronically (7 weeks, 200 or 400 µg/m(3) for 6 h/day). HSP70 was measured in the lung using immunohistochemistry, and in the plasma by ELISA. Abdominal aorta rings were used to determine vascular functional responses. Chronic DE-exposure increased the fraction of HSP70 positive alveolar macrophages (AM) that was related to the fraction of particle-laden AM in the lung (r(2) =  0.48, p <0.01). Chronic DE-exposure increased plasma HSP70 levels and reduced blood vessel responses to phenylephrine (PE). The fraction of particle-laden HSP70 positive AM was associated with abnormal vasoconstriction responses to PE induced by DE-exposure (r(2) = 0.12, p = 0.02). Our results show that chronic inhalation of DE increases HSP70 expression in the lung and systemic circulation, and we postulate that HSP70 possibly contributes to air pollution induced vascular dysfunction and cardiovascular diseases.

Molecular characterization of the Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis hsp60-hsp10 operon, and evaluation of the immune response and protective efficacy induced by hsp60 DNA vaccination in mice

Background

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are important candidates for the development of vaccines because they are usually able to promote both humoral and cellular immune responses in mammals. We identified and characterized the hsp60-hsp10 bicistronic operon of the animal pathogen Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, a Gram-positive bacterium of the class Actinobacteria, which causes caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) in small ruminants.

Findings

To construct the DNA vaccine, the hsp60 gene of C. pseudotuberculosis was cloned in a mammalian expression vector. BALB/c mice were immunized by intramuscular injection with the recombinant plasmid (pVAX1/hsp60).

Conclusion

This vaccination induced significant anti-hsp60 IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a isotype production. However, immunization with this DNA vaccine did not confer protective immunity.

Serum heat shock protein 70 levels in relation to circulating cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules and angiogenic factors in women with preeclampsia

BACKGROUND

We have previously reported that serum levels of 70 kDa heat shock protein (Hsp70, HSPA1A) are increased and reflect systemic inflammation, oxidative stress and hepatocellular injury in preeclampsia. The purpose of this study was to determine whether increased serum Hsp70 concentrations in women with preeclampsia are related to circulating levels of cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules and angiogenic factors, the key players in the pathogenesis of the disease.

METHODS

Sixty preeclamptic patients and 60 normotensive, healthy pregnant women were involved in this case-control study. Levels of Hsp70 (HSPA1A) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 in maternal sera were assessed by ELISA. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, IL-18, interferon (IFN)-gamma, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interferon-gamma-inducible protein (IP)-10, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 were determined by multiplex suspension array. Serum total soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) and biologically active placental growth factor (PlGF) levels were measured by electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. For statistical analyses, the Mann-Whitney U-test, the Fisher exact and Pearson chi-square tests, the Spearman rank order correlation, multiple linear regression and logistic regression were applied.

RESULTS

Serum levels of Hsp70 were significantly higher in preeclamptic patients than in healthy pregnant women. Additionally, most of the measured inflammatory variables differed significantly between the two study groups except for serum IL-1 beta and TGF-beta1 levels and IL-18/IL-12p70 and IL-12p70/IL-12p40 ratios, indicating a bias toward a pro-inflammatory status in preeclampsia. Preeclamptic patients had significantly higher sFlt-1 levels and sFlt-1/PlGF ratio and significantly lower PlGF concentrations as compared to healthy pregnant women. In the preeclamptic group, serum Hsp70 concentrations showed significant correlations with serum levels of IL-12p40 (R=0.59, p<0.001), MCP-1 (R=0.43, p<0.001), ICAM-1 (R=0.39, p=0.0020) and VCAM-1 (R=0.46, p<0.001). Furthermore, elevated serum Hsp70 level and sFlt-1/PlGF ratio had a synergistic (joint) effect in the risk of preeclampsia, as shown by the substantially higher odds ratios of their combination than of either alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased serum Hsp70 concentrations in women with preeclampsia were associated with pro-inflammatory changes in circulating cytokine profile, suggesting that circulating Hsp70 might contribute to the development of the excessive systemic inflammatory response characteristic of the maternal syndrome of the disease.

Plant Hsp90 proteins interact with B-cells and stimulate their proliferation

BACKGROUND

The molecular chaperone heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) plays an important role in folding stabilization and activation of client proteins. Besides, Hsp90 of mammals and mammalian pathogens displays immunostimulatory properties. Here, we investigated the role of plant-derived Hsp90s as B-cell mitogens by measuring their proliferative responses in vitro.

METHODOLOGY

Plant cytosolic Hsp90 isoforms from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtHsp81.2) and Nicotiana benthamiana (NbHsp90.3) were expressed in E. coli. Over-expression of recombinant plant Hsp90s (rpHsp90s) was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and western blot using and anti-AtHsp81.2 polyclonal anti-body. Both recombinant proteins were purified by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography and their identity confirmed by MALDI-TOF-TOF. Recombinant AtHsp81.2 and NbHsp90.3 proteins induced prominent proliferative responses in spleen cells form BALB/c mice. Polymyxin-B, a potent inhibitor of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), did not eliminate the rpHsp90-induced proliferation. In addition, in vitro incubation of spleen cells with rpHsp90 led to the expansion of CD19-bearing populations, suggesting a direct effect of these proteins on B lymphocytes. This effect was confirmed by immunofluorescence analysis, where a direct binding of rpHsp90 to B- but not to T-cells was observed in cells from BALB/c and C3H/HeN mice. Finally, we examined the involvement of Toll Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) molecules in the rpHsp90s induction of B-cell proliferation. Spleen cells from C3H/HeJ mice, which carry a point mutation in the cytoplasmic region of TLR4, responded poorly to prAtHsp90. However, the interaction between rpHsp90 and B-cells from C3H/HeJ mice was not altered, suggesting that the mutation on TLR4 would be affecting the signal cascade but not the rpHsp90-TLR4 receptor interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show for the first time that spleen cell proliferation can be stimulated by a non-pathogen-derived Hsp90. Furthermore, our data provide a new example of a non-pathogen-derived ligand for TLRs.

Serum level of soluble Hsp70 is associated with vascular calcification

It has been previously reported that serum levels of 70-kDa heat shock protein (Hsp70) are elevated in peripheral artery disease. The aim of the present study was to examine whether increased serum Hsp70 levels are related to the extent of arterial calcification and standard laboratory parameters of patients with peripheral artery disease, as well as to markers of inflammation (C-reactive protein), atherosclerosis (homocysteine), and calcification (fetuin-a). One hundred eighty chronic atherosclerotic patients with significant carotid stenosis and/or lower extremity vascular disease were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Systemic atherosclerosis and calcification was assessed by ultrasound (carotid intima-media thickness (IMT), presence of calcification at the abdominal aorta, carotid and femoral bifurcations, and aortic and mitral cardiac valves). Standard serum markers of inflammation, diabetes, renal function, ankle-brachial indexes, and traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis were noted. Serum Hsp70 levels were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Standard laboratory parameters (clinical chemistry), C-reactive protein (CRP), and homocysteine levels were determined by an autoanalyzer using the manufacturer's kits. Fetuin-a levels were measured by radial immunodiffusion. Patients' median age was 64 (57-71) years, 69% were men, and 34.5% had diabetes. Serum heat shock protein 70 levels were significantly higher in patients with more severe arterial calcification (p < 0.02) and showed significant positive correlations with serum bilirubin (r = 0.23, p = 0.002) and homocysteine levels (r = 0.18, p = 0.02). Serum Hsp70 did not correlate with body mass index, IMT, CRP, or fetuin-a levels in this cohort. Logistic regression analysis confirmed the association between sHsp70 and calcification score (OR, 2.189; CI, 1.156-4.144, p = 0.016) and this correlation remained significant (OR, 2.264; CI, 1.021-5.020, p = 0.044) after the adjustment for age, sex, eGFR, smoking, CRP, and homocysteine levels. Our data show that serum Hsp70 levels correlate with the severity of atherosclerosis in patients with carotid artery disease and chronic lower limb ischemia. These data support a putative role for plasma Hsp70 in the development of arterial calcification. Nevertheless, further studies are required to investigate the usefulness of circulating Hsp70 level as a marker of atherosclerotic calcification.

Biosimulation of inflammation and healing in surgically injured vocal folds

OBJECTIVES

The pathogenesis of vocal fold scarring is complex and remains to be deciphered. The current study is part of research endeavors aimed at applying systems biology approaches to address the complex biological processes involved in the pathogenesis of vocal fold scarring and other lesions affecting the larynx.

METHODS

We developed a computational agent-based model (ABM) to quantitatively characterize multiple cellular and molecular interactions involved in inflammation and healing in vocal fold mucosa after surgical trauma. The ABM was calibrated with empirical data on inflammatory mediators (eg, tumor necrosis factor) and extracellular matrix components (eg, hyaluronan) from published studies on surgical vocal fold injury in the rat population.

RESULTS

The simulation results reproduced and predicted trajectories seen in the empirical data from the animals. Moreover, the ABM studies suggested that hyaluronan fragments might be the clinical surrogate of tissue damage, a key variable that in these simulations both is enhanced by and further induces inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

A relatively simple ABM such as the one reported in this study can provide new understanding of laryngeal wound healing and generate working hypotheses for further wet-lab studies.

Circulating heat shock protein 70 (HSPA1A) in normal and pathological pregnancies

Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are ubiquitous and phylogenetically conserved molecules. They are usually considered to be intracellular proteins with molecular chaperone and cytoprotective functions. However, Hsp70 (HSPA1A) is present in the peripheral circulation of healthy nonpregnant and pregnant individuals. In normal pregnancy, circulating Hsp70 levels are decreased, and show a positive correlation with gestational age and an inverse correlation with maternal age. The capacity of extracellular Hsp70 to elicit innate and adaptive proinflammatory (Th1-type) immune responses might be harmful in pregnancy and may lead to the maternal immune rejection of the fetus. Decreased circulating Hsp70 level, consequently, may promote the maintenance of immunological tolerance to the fetus. Indeed, elevated circulating Hsp70 concentrations are associated with an increased risk of several pregnancy complications. Elevated Hsp70 levels in healthy pregnant women at term might also have an effect on the onset of labor. In preeclampsia, serum Hsp70 levels are increased, and reflect systemic inflammation, oxidative stress and hepatocellular injury. Furthermore, serum Hsp70 levels are significantly higher in patients with the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count (HELLP syndrome) than in severely preeclamptic patients without HELLP syndrome. In HELLP syndrome, elevated serum Hsp70 level indicates tissue damage (hemolysis and hepatocellular injury) and disease severity. Increased circulating Hsp70 level may not only be a marker of these conditions, but might also play a role in their pathogenesis. Extracellular Hsp70 derived from stressed and damaged, necrotic cells can elicit a proinflammatory (Th1) immune response, which might be involved in the development of the maternal systemic inflammatory response and resultant endothelial damage in preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome. Circulating Hsp70 level is also elevated in preterm delivery high-risk patients, particularly in treatment-resistant cases, and may be a useful marker for evaluating the curative effects of treatment for preterm delivery. In addition, increased circulating Hsp70 levels observed in asthmatic pregnant patients might play a connecting role in the pathomechanism of asthmatic inflammation and obstetrical/perinatal complications. Nevertheless, a prospective study should be undertaken to determine whether elevated serum Hsp70 level precedes the development of any pregnancy complication, and thus can help to predict adverse maternal or perinatal pregnancy outcome. Moreover, the role of circulating Hsp70 in normal and pathological pregnancies is not fully known, and further studies are warranted to address this important issue.

Proteomic analyses of the effects of drugs of abuse on monocyte-derived mature dendritic cells

Drug abuse has become a global health concern. Understanding how drug abuse modulates the immune system and how the immune system responds to pathogens associated with drug abuse, such hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), can be assessed by an integrated approach comparing proteomic analyses and quantitation of gene expression. Two-dimensional (2D) difference gel electrophoresis was used to determine the molecular mechanisms underlying the proteomic changes that alter normal biological processes when monocyte-derived mature dendritic cells were treated with cocaine or methamphetamine. Both drugs differentially regulated the expression of several functional classes of proteins including those that modulate apoptosis, protein folding, protein kinase activity, and metabolism and proteins that function as intracellular signal transduction molecules. Proteomic data were validated using a combination of quantitative, real-time PCR and Western blot analyses. These studies will help to identify the molecular mechanisms, including the expression of several functionally important classes of proteins that have emerged as potential mediators of pathogenesis. These proteins may predispose immunocompetent cells, including dendritic cells, to infection with viruses such as HCV and HIV-1, which are associated with drug abuse.

Heat shock protein-derived T-cell epitopes contribute to autoimmune inflammation in pediatric Crohn's disease

Pediatric Crohn's disease is a chronic auto inflammatory bowel disorder affecting children under the age of 17 years. A putative etiopathogenesis of Crohn's disease (CD) is associated with disregulation of immune response to antigens commonly present in the gut microenvironment. Heat shock proteins (HSP) have been identified as ubiquitous antigens with the ability to modulate inflammatory responses associated with several autoimmune diseases. The present study tested the contribution of immune responses to HSP in the amplification of autoimmune inflammation in chronically inflamed mucosa of pediatric CD patients. Colonic biopsies obtained from normal and CD mucosa were stimulated with pairs of Pan HLA-DR binder HSP60-derived peptides (human/bacterial homologues). The modulation of RNA and protein levels of induced proinflammatory cytokines were measured. We identified two epitopes capable of sustaining proinflammatory responses, specifically TNF〈 and IFN© induction, in the inflamed intestinal mucosa in CD patients. The responses correlated positively with clinical and histological measurements of disease activity, thus suggesting a contribution of immune responses to HSP in pediatric CD site-specific mucosal inflammation.