Monomeric C-reactive protein regulates fibronectin mediated monocyte adhesion

Redefining CRP in tissue injury and repair: more than an acute pro-inflammatory mediator

Most early studies investigating the role of C-reactive protein (CRP) in tissue damage determined it supported pro-hemostatic and pro-inflammatory activities. However, these findings were not universal, as other data suggested CRP inhibited these same processes. A potential explanation for these disparate observations finally emerged with the recognition that CRP undergoes context-dependent conformational changes in vivo, and each of its three isoforms - pentameric CRP (pCRP), modified pentameric CRP (pCRP*), and monomeric CRP (mCRP) - have different effects. In this review, we consider this new paradigm and re-evaluate the role of CRP and its isoforms in the tissue repair process. Indeed, a growing body of evidence points toward the involvement of CRP not just in hemostasis and inflammation, but also in the resolution of inflammation and in tissue regeneration. Additionally, we briefly discuss the shortcomings of the currently available diagnostic tests for CRP and highlight the need for change in how CRP is currently utilized in clinical practice.

An evolutionarily conserved function of C-reactive protein is to prevent the formation of amyloid fibrils

C-reactive protein (CRP) binds to phosphocholine (PCh)-containing substances and subsequently activates the complement system to eliminate the ligand. The PCh-binding function of CRP has been conserved throughout evolution from arthropods to humans. Human CRP, in its structurally altered conformation at acidic pH, also binds to amyloid-β (Aβ) and prevents the formation of Aβ fibrils. It is unknown whether the Aβ-binding function of CRP has also been evolutionarily conserved. The aim of this study was to determine whether CRP isolated from American horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus was also anti-amyloidogenic and whether this function required structural alteration of Limulus CRP (Li-CRP). Two CRP species Li-CRP-I and Li-CRP-II were purified from hemolymph by employing PCh-affinity chromatography and phosphoethanolamine-affinity chromatography, respectively. Both Li-CRP-I and Li-CRP-II bound to immobilized Aβ at physiological pH. Unlike human CRP, Li-CRP did not require any changes in its overall structure to bind to Aβ. Both Li-CRP-I and Li-CRP-II bound to Aβ in the fluid phase also and prevented the fibrillation of Aβ. Additionally, ion-exchange chromatography of purified Li-CRP indicated that a variety of Li-CRP molecules of different subunit compositions were present in Limulus hemolymph, raising the possibility that the presence of various Li-CRP species in hemolymph facilitates the recognition of a range of proteins with differing amyloidogenicity. We conclude that the binding of CRP to Aβ is an ancient function of CRP. In invertebrates, the Aβ-binding function of CRP can protect the host from toxicity caused by amyloidogenic and pathogenic proteins. In humans, the Aβ-binding function of CRP can protect against inflammatory diseases in which the host proteins are ectopically deposited on either host cells or foreign cells in an inflammatory milieu since immobilized proteins may expose Aβ-like structures after deposition at places where they are not supposed to be.

C-Reactive Protein: An Important Inflammatory Marker of Coronary Atherosclerotic Disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common cause of death worldwide, with coronary atherosclerotic heart disease (CHD) accounting for the majority of events. Evidence demonstrates that inflammation plays a vital role in the development of CHD. The association between C-reactive protein (CRP), a representative inflammatory biomarker, and atherosclerosis (AS), CHD, and inflammation has attracted attention. Therefore, we conducted an extensive search on PubMed using the aforementioned terms as search criteria and identified a total of 1246 articles published from January 2000 to April 2024. Both review and research-based articles consistently indicate CRP as a risk enhancer for CVD, contributing to the refinement of risk stratification and early identification of apparently healthy at-risk populations. Additionally, CRP reflects disease progression and predicts the prognosis of recurrent cardiovascular events. Anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies targeting CRP also provide new treatment options for patients. This review focuses on the link between CRP and CHD, highlighting how CRP is involved in the pathological progression of AS and its potential value for clinical applications.

C-Reactive Protein, the Gliovascular Unit, and Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis is conditioned by the presence of amyloid beta (Aβ) and neuroinflammation. The gliovascular unit (GVU) illustrates the relationship between the vascular components of the brain and glial cells, particularly astrocytes, which are seen as critical elements mainly affected in this disease. In AD patients, the impairment of the GVU is seen as blood-brain barrier breakdown, decreased clearance of Aβ, and chronic inflammatory status. C-reactive protein (CRP) and its monomeric form (mCRP) are associated with endothelial dysfunction and amyloid plaque instability, contributing to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The interconnections between the GVU and the dissociated form of CRP were demonstrated by mCRP implication in vascular permeability that supports inflammation and extravasation of pro-inflammatory cytokines into the brain parenchyma. Astrocytic activation and endfeet function alterations can exacerbate the progression of AD by elevating pro-inflammatory agents and vascular amyloid accumulations. This review aims to emphasize the synergistic link between the GVU and monomers of CRP in the perpetuation of the inflammatory status, exacerbating neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Understanding their implication in AD can bring insights into novel therapeutic strategies to reduce AD progression.

Causal association of serum biomarkers with oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer: a mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Observational epidemiological studies revealed that multiple serum biomarkers can be associated with the risk of oral and oropharyngeal cancer (OC/OPC). However, the causal relationship between them remains largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the causal relationship between potential serum biomarkers and (OC/OPC).

METHODS

A two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) approach was performed to assess the causal association of 10 serum biomarkers with the risk of OC / OPC. Summary data on OC/OPC were obtained from a GWAS meta-analysis that included 2497 cases and 2928 controls. The TwoSampleMR package in R was used to perform MR analyzes. Inverse-variance weighted (IVW), Weighted median and MR-Egger methods were used to assess causal effects.

RESULTS

Suggestive associations with increased risk of C-reactive protein (CRP) (OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.14 to 2.02), using the IVW method. MR-Egger regression suggested that directional pleiotropy was unlikely to bias the result (P = 0.19). The findings were robust to sensitivity analyzes. The risk of OC/OPC was not associated with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, triglycerides, adiponectin, leptin, HbA1C and Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF 1).

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports that CRP was causally associated with an increased risk of oral and oropharyngeal cancer.

Monomeric C-reactive protein: A novel biomarker predicting neurodegenerative disease and vascular dysfunction

Circulating C-reactive protein (pCRP) concentrations rise dramatically during both acute (e.g., following stroke) or chronic infection and disease (e.g., autoimmune conditions such as lupus), providing complement fixation through C1q protein binding. It is now known, that on exposure to the membranes of activated immune cells (and microvesicles and platelets), or damaged/dysfunctional tissue, it undergoes lysophosphocholine (LPC)-phospholipase-C-dependent dissociation to the monomeric form (mCRP), concomitantly becoming biologically active. We review histological, immunohistochemical, and morphological/topological studies of post-mortem brain tissue from individuals with neuroinflammatory disease, showing that mCRP becomes stably distributed within the parenchyma, and resident in the arterial intima and lumen, being "released" from damaged, hemorrhagic vessels into the extracellular matrix. The possible de novo synthesis via neurons, endothelial cells, and glia is also considered. In vitro, in vivo, and human tissue co-localization analyses have linked mCRP to neurovascular dysfunction, vascular activation resulting in increased permeability, and leakage, compromise of blood brain barrier function, buildup of toxic proteins including tau and beta amyloid (Aβ), association with and capacity to "manufacture" Aβ-mCRP-hybrid plaques, and, greater susceptibility to neurodegeneration and dementia. Recently, several studies linked chronic CRP/mCRP systemic expression in autoimmune disease with increased risk of dementia and the mechanisms through which this occurs are investigated here. The neurovascular unit mediates correct intramural periarterial drainage, evidence is provided here that suggests a critical impact of mCRP on neurovascular elements that could suggest its participation in the earliest stages of dysfunction and conclude that further investigation is warranted. We discuss future therapeutic options aimed at inhibiting the pCRP-LPC mediated dissociation associated with brain pathology, for example, compound 1,6-bis-PC, injected intravenously, prevented mCRP deposition and associated damage, after temporary left anterior descending artery ligation and myocardial infarction in a rat model.

C-Reactive Protein: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, False Test Results and a Novel Diagnostic Algorithm for Clinicians

The current literature provides a body of evidence on C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and its potential role in inflammation. However, most pieces of evidence are sparse and controversial. This critical state-of-the-art monography provides all the crucial data on the potential biochemical properties of the protein, along with further evidence on its potential pathobiology, both for its pentameric and monomeric forms, including information for its ligands as well as the possible function of autoantibodies against the protein. Furthermore, the current evidence on its potential utility as a biomarker of various diseases is presented, of all cardiovascular, respiratory, hepatobiliary, gastrointestinal, pancreatic, renal, gynecological, andrological, dental, oral, otorhinolaryngological, ophthalmological, dermatological, musculoskeletal, neurological, mental, splenic, thyroid conditions, as well as infections, autoimmune-supposed conditions and neoplasms, including other possible factors that have been linked with elevated concentrations of that protein. Moreover, data on molecular diagnostics on CRP are discussed, and possible etiologies of false test results are highlighted. Additionally, this review evaluates all current pieces of evidence on CRP and systemic inflammation, and highlights future goals. Finally, a novel diagnostic algorithm to carefully assess the CRP level for a precise diagnosis of a medical condition is illustrated.

Modification of the structural stability of human serum albumin in rheumatoid arthritis

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) can indicate changes in structure and/or concentration of the most abundant proteins in a biological sample via heat denaturation curves (HDCs). In blood serum for example, HDC changes result from either concentration changes or altered thermal stabilities for 7-10 proteins and has previously been shown capable of differentiating between sick and healthy human subjects. Here, we compare HDCs and proteomic profiles of 50 patients experiencing joint-inflammatory symptoms, 27 of which were clinically diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The HDC of all 50 subjects appeared significantly different from expected healthy curves, but comparison of additional differences between the RA and the non-RA subjects allowed more specific understanding of RA samples. We used mass spectrometry (MS) to investigate the reasons behind the additional HDC changes observed in RA patients. The HDC differences do not appear to be directly related to differences in the concentrations of abundant serum proteins. Rather, the differences can be attributed to modified thermal stability of some fraction of the human serum albumin (HSA) proteins in the sample. By quantifying differences in the frequency of artificially induced post translational modifications (PTMs), we found that HSA in RA subjects had a much lower surface accessibility, indicating potential ligand or protein binding partners in certain regions that could explain the shift in HSA melting temperature in the RA HDCs. Several low abundance proteins were found to have significant changes in concentration in RA subjects and could be involved in or related to binding of HSA. Certain amino acid sites clusters were found to be less accessible in RA subjects, suggesting changes in HSA structure that may be related to changes in protein-protein interactions. These results all support a change in behavior of HSA which may give insight into mechanisms of RA pathology.

Fueling the flames of colon cancer – does CRP play a direct pro-inflammatory role?

Background

Systemic inflammation, diagnostically ascribed by measuring serum levels of the acute phase reactant C-reactive protein (CRP), has consistently been correlated with poor outcomes across cancer types. CRP exists in two structurally and functionally distinct isoforms, circulating pentameric CRP (pCRP) and the highly pro-inflammatory monomeric isoform (mCRP). The aim of this pilot study was to map the pattern of mCRP distribution in a previously immunologically well-defined colon cancer (CC) cohort and explore possible functional roles of mCRP within the tumor microenvironment (TME).

Methods

Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples from 43 stage II and III CC patients, including 20 patients with serum CRP 0-1 mg/L and 23 patients with serum CRP >30 mg/L were immunohistochemically (IHC) stained with a conformation-specific mCRP antibody and selected immune and stromal markers. A digital analysis algorithm was developed for evaluating mCRP distribution within the primary tumors and adjacent normal colon mucosa.

Results

mCRP was abundantly present within tumors from patients with high serum CRP (>30 mg/L) diagnostically interpreted as being systemically inflamed, whereas patients with CRP 0-1 mg/L exhibited only modest mCRP positivity (median mCRP per area 5.07‰ (95%CI:1.32-6.85) vs. 0.02‰ (95%CI:0.01-0.04), p<0.001). Similarly, tissue-expressed mCRP correlated strongly with circulating pCRP (Spearman correlation 0.81, p<0.001). Importantly, mCRP was detected exclusively within tumors, whereas adjacent normal colon mucosa showed no mCRP expression. Double IHC staining revealed colocalization of mCRP with endothelial cells and neutrophils. Intriguingly, some tumor cells also colocalized with mCRP, suggesting a direct interaction or mCRP expression by the tumor itself.

Conclusion

Our data show that the pro-inflammatory mCRP isoform is expressed in the TME of CC, primarily in patients with high systemic pCRP values. This strengthens the hypothesis that CRP might not only be an inflammatory marker but also an active mediator within tumors.

Monomeric C-Reactive Protein in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: Advances and Perspectives

This review aimed to trace the inflammatory pathway from the NLRP3 inflammasome to monomeric C-reactive protein (mCRP) in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. CRP is the final product of the interleukin (IL)-1β/IL-6/CRP axis. Its monomeric form can be produced at sites of local inflammation through the dissociation of pentameric CRP and, to some extent, local synthesis. mCRP has a distinct proinflammatory profile. In vitro and animal-model studies have suggested a role for mCRP in: platelet activation, adhesion, and aggregation; endothelial activation; leukocyte recruitment and polarization; foam-cell formation; and neovascularization. mCRP has been shown to deposit in atherosclerotic plaques and damaged tissues. In recent years, the first published papers have reported the development and application of mCRP assays. Principally, these studies demonstrated the feasibility of measuring mCRP levels. With recent advances in detection techniques and the introduction of first assays, mCRP-level measurement should become more accessible and widely used. To date, anti-inflammatory therapy in atherosclerosis has targeted the NLRP3 inflammasome and upstream links of the IL-1β/IL-6/CRP axis. Large clinical trials have provided sufficient evidence to support this strategy. However, few compounds target CRP. Studies on these agents are limited to animal models or small clinical trials.

Prognostic Role of Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR), Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte Ratio (LMR), Platelet-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (PLR) and Lymphocyte-to-C Reactive Protein Ratio (LCR) in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) undergoing Chemoembolizations (TACE) of the Liver: The Unexplored Corner Linking Tumor Microenvironment, Biomarkers and Interventional Radiology

TACE plays a pivotal role in hepatocellular carcinoma, from disease control to downstaging and bridging to liver transplant. Response to TACE is a surrogate marker of tumor aggressive biology, with manifold practical implications such as survival, the need for more aggressive treatments in the intermediate stage, the selection of patients on the transplant waiting list, the dropout rate from the transplant list and the post-transplant recurrence rate. Inflammation-based scores are biomarkers of the relationship between the tumor stromal microenvironment and the immune response. Investigating the connection among the tumor stromal microenvironment, biomarkers, and the response to TACE is crucial to recognize TACE refractoriness/failure, thus providing patients with tailored therapeutics. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the prognostic roles of the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), the lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR), the platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and the lymphocyte-to-C reactive protein ratio (LCR) in patients with HCC undergoing chemoembolization of the liver. Inflammation-based scores may be convenient, easily obtained, low-cost, and reliable biomarkers with prognostic significance for HCC undergoing TACE. Baseline cut-off values differ between various studies, thus increasing confusion about using of inflammation-based scores in clinical practice. Further investigations should be conducted to establish the optimal cut-off values for inflammation-based scores, consolidating their use in clinical practice.

Structurally Altered, Not Wild-Type, Pentameric C-Reactive Protein Inhibits Formation of Amyloid-β Fibrils

The structure of wild-type pentameric C-reactive protein (CRP) is stabilized by two calcium ions that are required for the binding of CRP to its ligand phosphocholine. CRP in its structurally altered pentameric conformations also binds to proteins that are denatured and aggregated by immobilization on microtiter plates; however, the identity of the ligand on immobilized proteins remains unknown. We tested the hypotheses that immobilization of proteins generated an amyloid-like structure and that amyloid-like structure was the ligand for structurally altered pentameric CRP. We found that the Abs to amyloid-β peptide 1-42 (Aβ) reacted with immobilized proteins, indicating that some immobilized proteins express an Aβ epitope. Accordingly, four different CRP mutants capable of binding to immobilized proteins were constructed, and their binding to fluid-phase Aβ was determined. All CRP mutants bound to fluid-phase Aβ, suggesting that Aβ is a ligand for structurally altered pentameric CRP. In addition, the interaction between CRP mutants and Aβ prevented the formation of Aβ fibrils. The growth of Aβ fibrils was also halted when CRP mutants were added to growing fibrils. Biochemical analyses of CRP mutants revealed altered topology of the Ca2+-binding site, suggesting a role of this region of CRP in binding to Aβ. Combined with previous reports that structurally altered pentameric CRP is generated in vivo, we conclude that CRP is a dual pattern recognition molecule and an antiamyloidogenic protein. These findings have implications for Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases caused by amyloidosis and for the diseases caused by the deposition of otherwise fluid-phase proteins.

Regulation of Conformational Changes in C-reactive Protein Alters its Bioactivity

The acute phase C-reactive protein (CRP) is mainly synthesized and secreted by the liver in a cytokine-mediated response to infection or inflammation and circulates as a pentamer (pCRP) in plasma. Recent studies indicate that CRP is not only a marker but is directly involved in inflammation. CRP has a vital role in host defense and inflammation, metabolic function and scavenging through its ability for calcium depended binding to exogenous and endogenous molecules having phosphocholine followed by activation of the classical complement pathway. Accumulating evidence indicates that pCRP dissociates into monomeric CRP (mCRP) and most proinflammatory actions of CRP are only expressed following dissociation of its native pentameric assembly into mCRP. The dissociation of CRP into mCRP altogether promotes the ligand-binding capability. mCRP emerges to be the main conformation of CRP that participates in the regulation of local inflammation, however, little is identified concerning what triggers the significantly enhanced actions of mCRP and their binding to diverse ligands. The separation of mCRP from pCRP may be a direct relationship between CRP and inflammation. Here we review the current literature on CRP dissociation and its interaction with different ligands. The possibility to avoid the generation of the proinflammatory potential of mCRP has driven therapeutic approaches by targeting the dissociation mechanism of pCRP or inhibition of mCRP itself during inflammation.

Clinical Significance of Nutrition and Inflammation in Esophageal Cancer Patients with Surgery: A Meta-Analysis

Many studies have reported that the geriatric nutritional risk index (GNRI) and C-reactive protein to albumin ratio (CAR) may be associated with prognosis of esophageal cancer (EC); however, the results are inconsistent. Therefore, we performed a meta-analysis to evaluate the effect of preoperative GNRI and CAR on the prognosis of EC. PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases were searched. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to analyze the relationship between GNRI/CAR and prognosis. Publication bias was estimated using Begg's funnel plot asymmetry test and Egger's test. A total of 21 studies comprising 5,018 patients were included in the meta-analysis. A decreased GNRI was significantly associated with poorer overall survival (OS) (HR = 1.808, 95% CI: 1.489-2.196, P < 0.001) and cancer-specific survival (CSS) (HR = 1.769, 95% CI: 1.193-2.624, P = 0.005), and an increased CAR was significantly associated with lower OS (HR = 2.179, 95% CI: 1.587-2.992, P < 0.001), CSS (HR = 1.733, 95% CI: 1.333-2.253, P < 0.001), and recurrence-free survival (HR = 2.178, 95% CI: 1.328-3.573, P = 0.002). Thus, preoperative GNRI and CAR may be noninvasive and powerful tools for predicting survival outcomes in patients with EC.

Monomeric C‑reactive protein level is associated with osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic joint disease characterized by articular cartilage degeneration and secondary bone hyperplasia. C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute-phase protein that is widely used as a marker of inflammation. Elevated plasma levels of CRP are commonly observed in patients with OA during the acute phase. Current evidence indicates that CRP dissociating into a monomeric form (mCRP) is the main functional conformation at inflammatory loci. However, it remains unclear whether mCRP is associated with OA and whether mCRP can be used as a biomarker for its pathogenesis. In the present study, the concentration of CRP, mCRP and anti-mCRP autoantibody were detected by performing ELISA. The levels of plasma CRP, mCRP and anti-mCRP autoantibody between healthy subjects and patients with OA were compared. The results revealed that plasma mCRP was strongly associated with OA, while mCRP autoantibodies exhibited little correlation with this condition. Additionally, it was identified that the plasma mCRP levels in Kellgren-Lawrence (KL) grade 4 patients were significantly higher than in those with KL grade 3. Thus, it was revealed in the present study that plasma level of mCRP is associated with OA, which may directly reflect the disease degree of patients. Therefore, mCRP may be a potential indicator that can be used to monitor the disease activity and evaluate the efficiency of OA therapy.

Monomeric C reactive protein (mCRP) regulates inflammatory responses in human and mouse chondrocytes

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute-phase protein that is used as an established biomarker to follow disease severity and progression in a plethora of inflammatory diseases. However, its pathophysiologic mechanisms of action are still poorly defined and remain elusive. CRP, in its pentameric form, exhibits weak anti-inflammatory activity. On the contrary, the monomeric isoform (mCRP) exhibits potent pro-inflammatory properties in endothelial cells, leukocytes, and platelets. So far, no data exists regarding mCRP effects in human or mouse chondrocytes. This work aimed to verify the pathophysiological relevance of mCRP in the etiology and/or progression of osteoarthritis (OA). We investigated the effects of mCRP in cultured human primary chondrocytes and in the chondrogenic ATDC5 mouse cell line. We determined mRNA and protein levels of relevant factors involved in inflammatory responses and the modulation of nitric oxide synthase type II (NOS2), an early inflammatory molecular target. We demonstrate, for the first time, that monomeric C reactive protein increases NOS2, COX2, MMP13, VCAM1, IL-6, IL-8, and LCN2 expression in human and murine chondrocytes. We also demonstrated that NF-kB is a key factor in the intracellular signaling of mCRP-driven induction of pro-inflammatory and catabolic mediators in chondrocytes. We concluded that mCRP exerts a sustained catabolic effect on human and murine chondrocytes, increasing the expression of inflammatory mediators and proteolytic enzymes, which can promote extracellular matrix (ECM) breakdown in healthy and OA cartilage. In addition, our results implicate the NF-kB signaling pathway in catabolic effects mediated by mCRP.

Pattern Recognition Proteins: First Line of Defense Against Coronaviruses

The rapid outbreak of COVID-19 caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China, has become a worldwide pandemic affecting almost 204 million people and causing more than 4.3 million deaths as of August 11 2021. This pandemic has placed a substantial burden on the global healthcare system and the global economy. Availability of novel prophylactic and therapeutic approaches are crucially needed to prevent development of severe disease leading to major complications both acutely and chronically. The success in fighting this virus results from three main achievements: (a) Direct killing of the SARS-CoV-2 virus; (b) Development of a specific vaccine, and (c) Enhancement of the host's immune system. A fundamental necessity to win the battle against the virus involves a better understanding of the host's innate and adaptive immune response to the virus. Although the role of the adaptive immune response is directly involved in the generation of a vaccine, the role of innate immunity on RNA viruses in general, and coronaviruses in particular, is mostly unknown. In this review, we will consider the structure of RNA viruses, mainly coronaviruses, and their capacity to affect the lungs and the cardiovascular system. We will also consider the effects of the pattern recognition protein (PRP) trident composed by (a) Surfactant proteins A and D, mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and complement component 1q (C1q), (b) C-reactive protein, and (c) Innate and adaptive IgM antibodies, upon clearance of viral particles and apoptotic cells in lungs and atherosclerotic lesions. We emphasize on the role of pattern recognition protein immune therapies as a combination treatment to prevent development of severe respiratory syndrome and to reduce pulmonary and cardiovascular complications in patients with SARS-CoV-2 and summarize the need of a combined therapeutic approach that takes into account all aspects of immunity against SARS-CoV-2 virus and COVID-19 disease to allow mankind to beat this pandemic killer.

Monomeric C-Reactive Protein - A Feature of Inflammatory Disease Associated With Cardiovascular Pathophysiological Complications?

Monomeric C-reactive protein (mCRP), the dissociated form of native C-reactive protein, is a critical molecule that causes and perpetuates inflammation in serious diseases. It has 'adhesive'-like properties causing aggregation of blood cells and platelets, and can stick permanently within arterial tissue where it can contribute to further complications including thrombosis, linking it potentially to atherosclerosis and subsequent acute coronary events. In this mini review, we discuss briefly the implications and the potential value of measuring and manipulating it for clinical diagnostics and therapeutic purposes.

C-Reactive Protein and Cancer-Diagnostic and Therapeutic Insights

Cancer disease describes any pathology involving uncontrolled cell growth. As cells duplicate, they can remain localized in defined tissues, forming tumor masses and altering their microenvironmental niche, or they can disseminate throughout the body in a metastatic process affecting multiple tissues and organs. As tumors grow and metastasize, they affect normal tissue integrity and homeostasis which signals the body to trigger the acute phase inflammatory response. C-reactive protein (CRP) is a predominant protein of the acute phase response; its blood levels have long been used as a minimally invasive index of any ongoing inflammatory response, including that occurring in cancer. Its diagnostic significance in assessing disease progression or remission, however, remains undefined. By considering the recent understanding that CRP exists in multiple isoforms with distinct biological activities, a unified model is advanced that describes the relevance of CRP as a mediator of host defense responses in cancer. CRP in its monomeric, modified isoform (mCRP) modulates inflammatory responses by inserting into activated cell membranes and stimulating platelet and leukocyte responses associated with acute phase responses to tumor growth. It also binds components of the extracellular matrix in involved tissues. Conversely, CRP in its pentameric isoform (pCRP), which is the form quantified in diagnostic measurements of CRP, is notably less bioactive with weak anti-inflammatory bioactivity. Its accumulation in blood is associated with a continuous, low-level inflammatory response and is indicative of unresolved and advancing disease, as occurs in cancer. Herein, a novel interpretation of the diagnostic utility of CRP is presented accounting for the unique properties of the CRP isoforms in the context of the developing pro-metastatic tumor microenvironment.