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Lyng FM, Azzam EI. Abscopal Effects, Clastogenic Effects and Bystander Effects: 70 Years of Non-Targeted Effects of Radiation. Radiat Res 2024; 202:355-367. [PMID: 38986531 DOI: 10.1667/rade-24-00040.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo observations accumulated over several decades have firmly shown that the biological effects of ionizing radiation can spread from irradiated cells/tissues to non-targeted cells/tissues. Redox-modulated intercellular communication mechanisms that include a role for secreted factors and gap junctions, can mediate these non-targeted effects. Clearly, the expression of such effects and their transmission to progeny cells has implications for issues related to radiation protection. Their elucidation is also relevant towards enhancing the efficacy of cancer radiotherapy and reducing its impact on the development of normal tissue toxicities. In addition, the study of non-targeted effects is pertinent to our basic understanding of intercellular communications under conditions of oxidative stress. This review will trace the history of non-targeted effects of radiation starting with early reports of abscopal effects which described radiation induced effects in tissues distant from the site of radiation exposure. A related effect involved the production of clastogenic factors in plasma following irradiation which can induce chromosome damage in unirradiated cells. Despite these early reports suggesting non-targeted effects of radiation, the classical paradigm that a direct deposition of energy in the nucleus was required still dominated. This paradigm was challenged by papers describing radiation induced bystander effects. This review will cover mechanisms of radiation-induced bystander effects and the potential impacts on radiation protection and radiation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona M Lyng
- Radiation and Environmental Science Centre, FOCAS Research Institute
- School of Physics, Clinical and Optometric Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Edouard I Azzam
- Department of Radiology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
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Khazaei Monfared Y, Heidari P, Klempner SJ, Mahmood U, Parikh AR, Hong TS, Strickland MR, Esfahani SA. DNA Damage by Radiopharmaceuticals and Mechanisms of Cellular Repair. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2761. [PMID: 38140100 PMCID: PMC10748326 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15122761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA is an organic molecule that is highly vulnerable to chemical alterations and breaks caused by both internal and external factors. Cells possess complex and advanced mechanisms, including DNA repair, damage tolerance, cell cycle checkpoints, and cell death pathways, which together minimize the potentially harmful effects of DNA damage. However, in cancer cells, the normal DNA damage tolerance and response processes are disrupted or deregulated. This results in increased mutagenesis and genomic instability within the cancer cells, a known driver of cancer progression and therapeutic resistance. On the other hand, the inherent instability of the genome in rapidly dividing cancer cells can be exploited as a tool to kill by imposing DNA damage with radiopharmaceuticals. As the field of targeted radiopharmaceutical therapy (RPT) is rapidly growing in oncology, it is crucial to have a deep understanding of the impact of systemic radiation delivery by radiopharmaceuticals on the DNA of tumors and healthy tissues. The distribution and activation of DNA damage and repair pathways caused by RPT can be different based on the characteristics of the radioisotope and molecular target. Here we provide a comprehensive discussion of the biological effects of RPTs, with the main focus on the role of varying radioisotopes in inducing direct and indirect DNA damage and activating DNA repair pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousef Khazaei Monfared
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (Y.K.M.); (P.H.); (U.M.)
| | - Pedram Heidari
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (Y.K.M.); (P.H.); (U.M.)
| | - Samuel J. Klempner
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Mass General Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (S.J.K.); (A.R.P.); (M.R.S.)
| | - Umar Mahmood
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (Y.K.M.); (P.H.); (U.M.)
| | - Aparna R. Parikh
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Mass General Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (S.J.K.); (A.R.P.); (M.R.S.)
| | - Theodore S. Hong
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA;
| | - Matthew R. Strickland
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Mass General Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (S.J.K.); (A.R.P.); (M.R.S.)
| | - Shadi A. Esfahani
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (Y.K.M.); (P.H.); (U.M.)
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Liu X, Zeng L, Zhou Y, Zhao X, Zhu L, Zhang J, Pan Y, Shao C, Fu J. P21 facilitates macrophage chemotaxis by promoting CCL7 in the lung epithelial cell lines treated with radiation and bleomycin. J Transl Med 2023; 21:314. [PMID: 37161570 PMCID: PMC10169365 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04177-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) can be induced and even exacerbated by radiotherapy in thoracic cancer patients. The roles of immune responses underlying the development of these severe lung injuries are still obscure and need to be investigated. METHODS A severe lung damage murine model was established by delivering 16 Gy X-rays to the chest of mice that had been pre-treated with bleomycin (BLM) and thus hold ILDs. Bioinformatic analyses were performed on the GEO datasets of radiation-induced lung injury (RILI) and BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis (BIPF), and RNA-sequencing data of the severely damaged lung tissues. The screened differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were verified in lung epithelial cell lines by qRT-PCR assay. The injured lung tissue pathology was analyzed with H&E and Masson's staining, and immunohistochemistry staining. The macrophage chemotaxis and activity promoted by the stressed epithelial cells were determined by using a cell co-culture system. The expressions of p21 in MLE-12 and Beas-2B cells were detected by qRT-PCR, western blot, and immunofluorescence. The concentration of CCL7 in cell supernatant was measured by ELISA assay. In some experiments, Beas-2B cells were transfected with p21-siRNA or CCL7-siRNA before irradiation and/or BLM treatment. RESULTS After the treatment of irradiation and/or BLM, the inflammatory and immune responses, chemokine-mediated signaling pathways were steadily activated in the severely injured lung, and p21 was screened out by the bioinformatic analysis and further verified to be upregulated in both mouse and human lung epithelial cell lines. The expression of P21 was positively correlated with macrophage infiltration in the injured lung tissues. Co-culturing with stressed Beas-2B cells or its conditioned medium containing CCL7 protein, U937 macrophages were actively polarized to M1-phase and their migration ability was obviously increased along with the damage degree of Beas-2B cells. Furthermore, knockdown p21 reduced CCL7 expression in Beas-2B cells and then decreased the chemotaxis of co-cultured macrophages. CONCLUSIONS P21 promoted CCL7 release from the severely injured lung epithelial cell lines and contributed to the macrophage chemotaxis in vitro, which provides new insights for better understanding the inflammatory responses in lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinglong Liu
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, and Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Liang Zeng
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yuchuan Zhou
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Xinrui Zhao
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Lin Zhu
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Jianghong Zhang
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yan Pan
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Chunlin Shao
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, and Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Jiamei Fu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
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Madas BG, Boei J, Fenske N, Hofmann W, Mezquita L. Effects of spatial variation in dose delivery: what can we learn from radon-related lung cancer studies? RADIATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOPHYSICS 2022; 61:561-577. [PMID: 36208308 PMCID: PMC9630403 DOI: 10.1007/s00411-022-00998-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to radon progeny results in heterogeneous dose distributions in many different spatial scales. The aim of this review is to provide an overview on the state of the art in epidemiology, clinical observations, cell biology, dosimetry, and modelling related to radon exposure and its association with lung cancer, along with priorities for future research. Particular attention is paid on the effects of spatial variation in dose delivery within the organs, a factor not considered in radiation protection. It is concluded that a multidisciplinary approach is required to improve risk assessment and mechanistic understanding of carcinogenesis related to radon exposure. To achieve these goals, important steps would be to clarify whether radon can cause other diseases than lung cancer, and to investigate radon-related health risks in children or persons at young ages. Also, a better understanding of the combined effects of radon and smoking is needed, which can be achieved by integrating epidemiological, clinical, pathological, and molecular oncology data to obtain a radon-associated signature. While in vitro models derived from primary human bronchial epithelial cells can help to identify new and corroborate existing biomarkers, they also allow to study the effects of heterogeneous dose distributions including the effects of locally high doses. These novel approaches can provide valuable input and validation data for mathematical models for risk assessment. These models can be applied to quantitatively translate the knowledge obtained from radon exposure to other exposures resulting in heterogeneous dose distributions within an organ to support radiation protection in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balázs G Madas
- Environmental Physics Department, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Jan Boei
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nora Fenske
- Federal Office for Radiation Protection, Munich (Neuherberg), Germany
| | - Werner Hofmann
- Biological Physics, Department of Chemistry and Physics of Materials, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Laura Mezquita
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Translational Genomic and Targeted Therapies in Solid Tumors, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
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Yu KN. Radiation-Induced Rescue Effect: Insights from Microbeam Experiments. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:1548. [PMID: 36358251 PMCID: PMC9687443 DOI: 10.3390/biology11111548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The present paper reviews a non-targeted effect in radiobiology known as the Radiation-Induced Rescue Effect (RIRE) and insights gained from previous microbeam experiments on RIRE. RIRE describes the mitigation of radiobiological effects in targeted irradiated cells after they receive feedback signals from co-cultured non-irradiated bystander cells, or from the medium previously conditioning those co-cultured non-irradiated bystander cells. RIRE has established or has the potential of establishing relationships with other non-traditional new developments in the fields of radiobiology, including Radiation-Induced Bystander Effect (RIBE), Radiation-Induced Field Size Effect (RIFSE) and ultra-high dose rate (FLASH) effect, which are explained. The paper first introduces RIRE, summarizes previous findings, and surveys the mechanisms proposed for observations. Unique opportunities offered by microbeam irradiations for RIRE research and some previous microbeam studies on RIRE are then described. Some thoughts on future priorities and directions of research on RIRE exploiting unique features of microbeam radiations are presented in the last section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwan Ngok Yu
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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6
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Acute cytotoxicity test of PM 2.5, NNK and BPDE in human normal bronchial epithelial cells: A comparison of a co-culture model containing macrophages and a mono-culture model. Toxicol In Vitro 2022; 85:105480. [PMID: 36152786 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Based on extensive research on cytotoxicity of exogenous compounds in vitro, it is essential to develop a cell model that better mimics environment in vivo to explore cytotoxic mechanisms of exogenous compounds. METHODS A co-culture system was established using a transwell system with Beas-2B and U937 cells. Cells were treated with fine particulate matter (PM2.5; 25, 50 and 100 μg/mL), nicotine-derived nitrosamine ketone (NNK; 50, 100 and 200 μg/mL) and benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide (BPDE; 0.5, 2 and 8 μM) for 24 h. Cell proliferation, apoptosis and cell cycle, DNA damage were detected by CCK-8 and EdU, flow cytometry, and comet assay, respectively. Differentially expressed transcript and cytokine concentrations were determined by transcriptome sequencing and Cytokine Array, respectively. RESULTS Compared with mono-culture, cell proliferation increased, apoptosis decreased, and DNA damage decreased in a dose-response relationship in co-culture. Gene expression profile was significantly different in co-culture, with significantly increased expression levels of 48 cytokines in co-culture. CONCLUSION Cytotoxic damage to Beas-2B cells induced by exogenous carcinogens, including PM2.5, NNK and BPDE, was significantly reduced in a co-culture system compared with a mono-culture system. The mechanism may be related to changes in expression of cytokines, such as LIF, and activation of related pathways, such as TNF signaling pathway. Cytotoxic damage to Beas-2B induced by PM2.5, NNK and BPDE, was significantly reduced in co-culture. The mechanism may be related to changes in expression of cytokines and activation of related pathways. These findings provide new insights into cytotoxicity and experimental basis for safety evaluations of exogenous carcinogens.
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Mukherjee S, Dutta A, Chakraborty A. The interaction of oxidative stress with MAPK, PI3/AKT, NF-κB, and DNA damage kinases influences the fate of γ-radiation-induced bystander cells. Arch Biochem Biophys 2022; 725:109302. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2022.109302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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8
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Yu K. Role of radiation-induced rescue effect in radiation field size effect. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2022.110143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Mukherjee S, Dutta A, Chakraborty A. The cross-talk between Bax, Bcl2, caspases, and DNA damage in bystander HepG2 cells is regulated by γ-radiation dose and time of conditioned media transfer. Apoptosis 2022; 27:184-205. [PMID: 35076828 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-022-01713-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Although radiation-induced bystander effects have been broadly explored in various biological systems, the molecular mechanisms and the consequences of different regulatory factors (dose, time, cell type) on bystander responses are not clearly understood. This study investigates the effects of irradiated cell-conditioned media (ICCM) collected at different times post-irradiation on bystander cancer cells regarding DNA damage and apoptosis induction. Human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells were exposed to γ-ray doses of 2 Gy, 5 Gy, and 8 Gy. In the early and late stages (1 h, 2 h, and 24 h) after irradiation, the ICCM was collected and transferred to unirradiated cells. Compared to control, bystander cells showed an increased level of H2AX phosphorylation, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, and elevation of intrinsic apoptotic pathway mediators such as p53, Bax, cas9, cas-3, and PARP cleavage. These results were confirmed by phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization and scanning electron microscopic observations, suggesting a rise in bystander HepG2 cell apoptosis. Anti-apoptotic Bcl2-level and viability were lower in bystander cells compared to control. The highest effects were observed in 8 Gy γ radiation-induced bystander cells. Even though the bystander effect was persistent at all time points of the study, ICCM at the early time points (1 or 2 h) had the most significant impact on the apoptosis markers in bystander cells. Nevertheless, 24 h ICCM induced the highest increase in H2AX and p53 phosphorylation and Bax levels. The effects of ICCM of irradiated HepG2 cells were additionally studied in normal liver cells BRL-3A to simulate actual radiotherapy conditions. The outcomes suggest that the expression of the signaling mediators in bystander cells is highly dynamic. A cross-talk between those signaling mediators regulates bystander responses depending on the radiation dose and time of incubation post-irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharmi Mukherjee
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Kolkata Centre, Block-LB, Plot-8, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700 106, India.
| | - Anindita Dutta
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Kolkata Centre, Block-LB, Plot-8, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700 106, India
| | - Anindita Chakraborty
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Kolkata Centre, Block-LB, Plot-8, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700 106, India
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Low Dose Ionising Radiation-Induced Hormesis: Therapeutic Implications to Human Health. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11198909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The concept of radiation-induced hormesis, whereby a low dose is beneficial and a high dose is detrimental, has been gaining attention in the fields of molecular biology, environmental toxicology and radiation biology. There is a growing body of literature that recognises the importance of hormetic dose response not only in the radiation field, but also with molecular agents. However, there is continuing debate on the magnitude and mechanism of radiation hormetic dose response, which could make further contributions, as a research tool, to science and perhaps eventually to public health due to potential therapeutic benefits for society. The biological phenomena of low dose ionising radiation (LDIR) includes bystander effects, adaptive response, hypersensitivity, radioresistance and genomic instability. In this review, the beneficial and the detrimental effects of LDIR-induced hormesis are explored, together with an overview of its underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms that may potentially provide an insight to the therapeutic implications to human health in the future.
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Liu X, Shao C, Fu J. Promising Biomarkers of Radiation-Induced Lung Injury: A Review. Biomedicines 2021; 9:1181. [PMID: 34572367 PMCID: PMC8470495 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9091181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiation-induced lung injury (RILI) is one of the main dose-limiting side effects in patients with thoracic cancer during radiotherapy. No reliable predictors or accurate risk models are currently available in clinical practice. Severe radiation pneumonitis (RP) or pulmonary fibrosis (PF) will reduce the quality of life, even when the anti-tumor treatment is effective for patients. Thus, precise prediction and early diagnosis of lung toxicity are critical to overcome this longstanding problem. This review summarizes the primary mechanisms and preclinical animal models of RILI reported in recent decades, and analyzes the most promising biomarkers for the early detection of lung complications. In general, ideal integrated models considering individual genetic susceptibility, clinical background parameters, and biological variations are encouraged to be built up, and more prospective investigations are still required to disclose the molecular mechanisms of RILI as well as to discover valuable intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinglong Liu
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China;
| | - Chunlin Shao
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China;
| | - Jiamei Fu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200433, China
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12
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Fu J, Zhu L, Tu W, Wang X, Pan Y, Bai Y, Dang B, Chen J, Shao C. Macrophage-Mediated Bystander Effects after Different Irradiations through a p53-dependent Pathway. Radiat Res 2019; 193:119-129. [PMID: 31841081 DOI: 10.1667/rr15354.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this work was to elucidate the mechanisms of bystander effects outside the localized irradiation field and their potential hematological toxicity. In this study, an in vitro multicellular co-culture system was used to investigate the intercellular commutation and related signaling pathways between either irradiated A549 cells or Beas-2B cells and bystander lymphoblast TK6 cells with or without macrophage U937 cells as an intermediator. Results showed that the proliferation ability of bystander TK6 cells was inhibited after co-culture with A549 cells irradiated with γ rays rather than carbon ions. When macrophages were contained in the co-culture system, the cell viability damage to the bystander TK6 cells were further enhanced. However, the proliferation inhibition of bystander TK6 cells after co-culture with irradiated Beas-2B cells was observed only when intermediator macrophages existed in the cell co-culture system. More serious cell injury was detected after carbon-ion irradiation compared with γ-ray irradiation. The p53-relevant apoptosis pathway was activated in both irradiated A549 and Beas-2B cells, each to a different extent. When the p53 pathway of irradiated cells was inhibited by PFT-α, PFTµ or p53 siRNA, the bystander damage to TK6 cells were clearly alleviated. In conclusion, the bystander lymphoblast damage was induced in different cells using different LET radiations. An amplified bystander response was modulated by the intermediator macrophage. The underlying molecular mechanisms of these bystander effects were dependent on the activation of p53 and its relevant apoptosis pathway in the irradiated cells. These results suggest that the bystander and macrophage-mediated bystander effects contribute to the common acute side effect of lymphocytopenia after local irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiamei Fu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Tongji University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200433, China.,Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Lin Zhu
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wenzhi Tu
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiangdong Wang
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yan Pan
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yang Bai
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Bingrong Dang
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Jiayi Chen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chunlin Shao
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
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13
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Yu KN. Radiation-induced rescue effect. JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH 2019; 60:163-170. [PMID: 30624744 PMCID: PMC6430251 DOI: 10.1093/jrr/rry109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Radiation-induced rescue effect (RIRE) refers to the phenomenon in which detrimental effects in targeted irradiated cells are reduced upon receiving feedback signals from partnered non-irradiated bystander cells, or from the medium previously conditioning these partnered non-irradiated bystander cells. For convenience, in the current review we define two types of RIRE: (i) Type 1 RIRE (reduced detrimental effects in targeted cells upon receiving feedback signals from bystander cells) and (ii) Type 2 RIRE (exacerbated detrimental effects in targeted cells upon receiving feedback signals from bystander cells). The two types of RIRE, as well as the associated mechanisms and chemical messengers, have been separately reviewed. The recent report on the potential effects of RIRE on the traditional colony-formation assays has also been reviewed. Finally, future priorities and directions for research into RIRE are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwan Ngok Yu
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- Corresponding author. Tel: +852-344-27812; Fax: +852-344-20538;
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14
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Mukherjee S, Chakraborty A. Radiation-induced bystander phenomenon: insight and implications in radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Biol 2019; 95:243-263. [PMID: 30496010 DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2019.1547440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sharmi Mukherjee
- Stress biology Lab, UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Kolkata Centre, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Anindita Chakraborty
- Stress biology Lab, UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Kolkata Centre, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
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15
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McKelvey KJ, Hudson AL, Back M, Eade T, Diakos CI. Radiation, inflammation and the immune response in cancer. Mamm Genome 2018; 29:843-865. [PMID: 30178305 PMCID: PMC6267675 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-018-9777-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Radiation is an important component of cancer treatment with more than half of all patients receive radiotherapy during their cancer experience. While the impact of radiation on tumour morphology is routinely examined in the pre-clinical and clinical setting, the impact of radiation on the tumour microenvironment and more specifically the inflammatory/immune response is less well characterised. Inflammation is a key contributor to short- and long-term cancer eradication, with significant tumour and normal tissue consequences. Therefore, the role of radiation in modulating the inflammatory response is highly topical given the current wave of targeted and immuno-therapeutic treatments for cancer. This review provides a general overview of how radiation modulates the inflammatory and immune response—(i) how radiation induces the inflammatory/immune system, (ii) the cellular changes that take place, (iii) how radiation dose delivery affects the immune response, and (iv) a discussion on research directions to improve patient survival, reduce side effects, improve quality of life, and reduce financial costs in the immediate future. Harnessing the benefits of radiation on the immune response will enhance its maximal therapeutic benefit and reduce radiation-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J McKelvey
- Bill Walsh Translational Cancer Research Laboratory, Northern Sydney Local Health District Research and the Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia. .,Sydney Neuro-Oncology Group, North Shore Private Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia. .,Sydney Vital Translational Research Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia.
| | - Amanda L Hudson
- Bill Walsh Translational Cancer Research Laboratory, Northern Sydney Local Health District Research and the Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia.,Sydney Neuro-Oncology Group, North Shore Private Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia.,Sydney Vital Translational Research Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia
| | - Michael Back
- Sydney Neuro-Oncology Group, North Shore Private Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia.,Northern Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia
| | - Tom Eade
- Northern Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia
| | - Connie I Diakos
- Sydney Vital Translational Research Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia.,Northern Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia
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16
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Yang X, Xu S, Su Y, Chen B, Yuan H, Xu A, Wu L. Autophagy-Src Regulates Connexin43-Mediated Gap Junction Intercellular Communication in Irradiated HepG2 Cells. Radiat Res 2018; 190:494-503. [PMID: 30095367 DOI: 10.1667/rr15073.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Connexin molecules are an important component of the gap junction, with connexin43 (Cx43) being the most abundantly expressed type. Src is a nonreceptor tyrosine-protein kinase that affects Cx43 activity by multiple mechanisms. However, it is not clear how Src regulates Cx43 to influence radiation-induced bystander effects (RIBEs). In this study, we demonstrated that Cx43 on Tyr265 was phosphorylated by activated Src in α-irradiated HepG2 cells, with the total expression of Cx43 unchanged. After inhibition of Cx43 phosphorylation in irradiated cells, the frequency of γ-H2AX foci formation in adjacent nonirradiated bystander cells was significantly enhanced. Furthermore, this study showed that autophagy regulated the activity of Src and phosphorylation of Cx43, and the level of autophagy was correlated with the radiation-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS). These results suggest that ROS and autophagy play an important role in regulating the Src-Cx43 axis to affect the RIBEs. Our findings provide new insights into the Cx43-mediated gap junction intercellular communication, as well as the underlying mechanism of RIBEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyao Yang
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,b University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Shengmin Xu
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,d Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Control Technology of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Yao Su
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,b University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Biao Chen
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,b University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Hang Yuan
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,d Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Control Technology of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - An Xu
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,d Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Control Technology of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Lijun Wu
- a Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, P. R. China.,c Institute of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601.,d Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Control Technology of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
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17
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Shahmohammadi Beni M, Krstic D, Nikezic D, Yu KN. Monte Carlo studies on photon interactions in radiobiological experiments. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193575. [PMID: 29561871 PMCID: PMC5862409 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
X-ray and γ-ray photons have been widely used for studying radiobiological effects of ionizing radiations. Photons are indirectly ionizing radiations so they need to set in motion electrons (which are a directly ionizing radiation) to perform the ionizations. When the photon dose decreases to below a certain limit, the number of electrons set in motion will become so small that not all cells in an "exposed" cell population can get at least one electron hit. When some cells in a cell population are not hit by a directly ionizing radiation (in other words not irradiated), there will be rescue effect between the irradiated cells and non-irradiated cells, and the resultant radiobiological effect observed for the "exposed" cell population will be different. In the present paper, the mechanisms underlying photon interactions in radiobiological experiments were studied using our developed NRUphoton computer code, which was benchmarked against the MCNP5 code by comparing the photon dose delivered to the cell layer underneath the water medium. The following conclusions were reached: (1) The interaction fractions decreased in the following order: 16O > 12C > 14N > 1H. Bulges in the interaction fractions (versus water medium thickness) were observed, which reflected changes in the energies of the propagating photons due to traversals of different amount of water medium as well as changes in the energy-dependent photon interaction cross-sections. (2) Photoelectric interaction and incoherent scattering dominated for lower-energy (10 keV) and high-energy (100 keV and 1 MeV) incident photons. (3) The fractions of electron ejection from different nuclei were mainly governed by the photoelectric effect cross-sections, and the fractions from the 1s subshell were the largest. (4) The penetration fractions in general decreased with increasing medium thickness, and increased with increasing incident photon energy, the latter being explained by the corresponding reduction in interaction cross-sections. (5) The areas under the angular distribution curves of photons exiting the medium layer and subsequently undergoing interactions within the cell layer became smaller for larger incident photon energies. (6) The number of cells suffering at least one electron hit increased with the administered dose. For larger incident photon energies, the numbers of cells suffering at least one electron hit became smaller, which was attributed to the reduction in the photon interaction cross-section. These results highlighted the importance of the administered dose in radiobiological experiments. In particular, the threshold administered doses at which all cells in the exposed cell array suffered at least one electron hit might provide hints on explaining the intriguing observation that radiation-induced cancers can be statistically detected only above the threshold value of ~100 mSv, and thus on reconciling controversies over the linear no-threshold model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - D. Krstic
- Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - D. Nikezic
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
- Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - K. N. Yu
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
- * E-mail:
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18
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Kong EY, Cheng SH, Yu KN. Induction of autophagy and interleukin 6 secretion in bystander cells: metabolic cooperation for radiation-induced rescue effect? JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH 2018; 59:129-140. [PMID: 29385614 PMCID: PMC5951087 DOI: 10.1093/jrr/rrx101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
We hypothesized that radiation-induced rescue effect (RIRE) shared similar mechanisms with 'metabolic cooperation', in which nutrient-deprived cancer cells prompted normal cells to provide nutrients. Our data demonstrated that X-ray irradiation induced autophagy in HeLa cells, which could last at least 18 h, and proved that the irradiated cells (IRCs) resorted to breaking down their own intracellular components to supply the molecules required for cell-repair enhancement (e.g. to activate the NF-κB pathway) in the absence of support from bystander unirradiated cells (UICs). Furthermore, autophagy accumulation in IRCs was significantly reduced when they were partnered with UICs, and more so with UICs with pre-induced autophagy before partnering (through starvation using Earle's Balanced Salt Solution), which showed that the autophagy induced in UICs supported the IRCs. Our results also showed that interleukin 6 (IL-6) was secreted by bystander UICs, particularly the UICs with pre-induced autophagy, when they were cultured in the medium having previously conditioned irradiated HeLa cells. It was established that autophagy could activate the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) that was required for the IL-6 production in the autophagy process. Taken together, the metabolic cooperation of RIRE was likely initiated by the bystander factors released from IRCs, which induced autophagy and activated STAT3 to produce IL-6 in bystander UICs, and was finally manifested in the activation of the NF-κB pathway in IRCs by the IL-6 secreted by the UICs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Yi Kong
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Shuk Han Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Kwan Ngok Yu
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
- Corresponding author: Tel: +852-344-27812; Fax: +852-344-20538;
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19
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Significance and nature of bystander responses induced by various agents. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2017; 773:104-121. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2017.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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20
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Enhanced DNA double-strand break repair of microbeam targeted A549 lung carcinoma cells by adjacent WI38 normal lung fibroblast cells via bi-directional signaling. Mutat Res 2017; 803-805:1-8. [PMID: 28689138 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms underlying the radiation-induced bystander effect (RIBE) and bi-directional signaling between irradiated carcinoma cells and their surrounding non-irradiated normal cells is relevant to cancer radiotherapy. The present study investigated propagation of RIBE signals between human lung carcinoma A549 cells and normal lung fibroblast WI38 cells in bystander cells, either directly or indirectly contacting irradiated A549 cells. We prepared A549-GFP/WI38 co-cultures and A549-GFP/A549 co-cultures, in which A549-GFP cells stably expressing H2BGFP were co-cultured with either A549 cells or WI38 cells, respectively. Using the SPICE-NIRS microbeam, only the A549-GFP cells were irradiated with 500 protons per cell. The level of γ-H2AX, a marker for DNA double-strand breaks (DSB), was subsequently measured for up to 24h post-irradiation in three categories of cells: (1) "targeted"/irradiated A549-GFP cells; (2) "neighboring"/non-irradiated cells directly contacting the "targeted" cells; and (3) "distant"/non-irradiated cells, which were not in direct contact with the "targeted" cells. We found that DSB repair in targeted A549-GFP cells was enhanced by co-cultured WI38 cells. The bystander response in A549-GFP/A549 cell co-cultures, as marked by γ-H2AX levels at 8h post-irradiation, showed a decrease to non-irradiated control level when approaching 24h, while the neighboring/distant bystander WI38 cells in A549-GFP/WI38 co-cultures was maintained at a similar level until 24h post-irradiation. Surprisingly, distant A549-GFP cells in A549-GFP/WI38 co-cultures showed time dependency similar to bystander WI38 cells, but not to distant cells in A549-GFP/A549 co-cultures. These observations indicate that γ-H2AX was induced in WI38 cells as a result of RIBE. WI38 cells were not only involved in rescue of targeted A549, but also in the modification of RIBE against distant A549-GFP cells. The present results demonstrate that radiation-induced bi-directional signaling had extended a profound influence on cellular sensitivity to radiation as well as the sensitivity to RIBE.
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21
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Protective effect of mild endoplasmic reticulum stress on radiation-induced bystander effects in hepatocyte cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38832. [PMID: 27958308 PMCID: PMC5153638 DOI: 10.1038/srep38832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Radiation-induced bystander effect (RIBE) has important implications for secondary cancer risk assessment during cancer radiotherapy, but the defense and self-protective mechanisms of bystander normal cells are still largely unclear. The present study found that micronuclei (MN) formation could be induced in the non-irradiated HL-7702 hepatocyte cells after being treated with the conditioned medium from irradiated hepatoma HepG2 cells under either normoxia or hypoxia, where the ratio of the yield of bystander MN induction to the yield of radiation-induced MN formation under hypoxia was much higher than that of normoxia. Nonetheless, thapsigargin induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and dramatically suppressed this bystander response manifested as the decrease of MN and apoptosis inductions. Meanwhile, the interference of BiP gene, a major ER chaperone, amplified the detrimental RIBE. More precisely, thapsigargin provoked ER sensor of PERK to initiate an instantaneous and moderate ER stress thus defensed the hazard form RIBE, while BiP depletion lead to persistently destroyed homeostasis of ER and exacerbated cell injury. These findings provide new insights that the mild ER stress through BiP-PERK-p-eIF2α signaling pathway has a profound role in protecting cellular damage from RIBE and hence may decrease the potential secondary cancer risk after cancer radiotherapy.
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22
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Fu J, Wang J, Wang X, Wang P, Xu J, Zhou C, Bai Y, Shao C. Signaling factors and pathways of α-particle irradiation induced bilateral bystander responses between Beas-2B and U937 cells. Mutat Res 2016; 789:1-8. [PMID: 27155559 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Although radiation induced bystander effects (RIBE) have been investigated for decades for their potential health risk, the underlying gene regulation is still largely unclear, especially the roles of immune system and inflammatory response in RIBE. In the present study, macrophage U937 cells and epithelial Beas-2B cells were co-cultured to disclose the cascades of bystander signaling factors and intercellular communications. After α-particle irradiation, both ERK and p38 pathways were activated in Beas-2B cells and were associated with the autocrine and paracrine signaling of TNF-α and IL-8, resulting in direct damage to the irradiated cells. Similar upregulation of TNF-α and IL-8 was induced in the bystander U937 cells after co-culture with α-irradiated Beas-2B cells. This upregulation was dependent on the activation of NF-κB pathway and was responsible for the enhanced damage of α-irradiated Beas-2B cells. Interestingly, the increased expressions of TNF-α and IL-8 mRNAs in the bystander U937 cells were clearly relayed on the activated ERK and p38 pathways in the irradiated Beas-2B cells, and the upregulation of TNF-α and IL-8 mRNAs in co-cultured Beas-2B cells was also partly due to the activated NF-κB pathway in the bystander U937 cells. With the pretreatment of U0126 (MEK1/2 inhibitor), SB203580 (p38 inhibitor) or BAY 11-7082 (NF-κB inhibitor), the aggravated damage in the α-irradiated Beas-2B cells could be largely alleviated. Our results disclosed novel signaling cascades of macrophage-mediated bilateral bystander responses that the release of TNF-α and IL-8 regulated by MAPK and NF-κB pathways synergistically increased cellular injury after α-particle irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiamei Fu
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Juan Wang
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiangdong Wang
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Ping Wang
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jinping Xu
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Cuiping Zhou
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yang Bai
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Chunlin Shao
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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