Magnetic resonance imaging at frequencies below 1 kHz

The use of the electromagnetic field in microbial process bioengineering

An electromagnetic field (EMF) has been shown to have various stimulatory or inhibitory effects on microorganisms. Over the years, growing interest in this topic led to numerous discoveries suggesting the potential applicability of EMF in biotechnological processes. Among these observations are stimulative effects of this physical influence resulting in intensified biomass production, modification of metabolic activity, or pigments secretion. In this review, we present the current state of the art and underline the main findings of the application of EMF in bioprocessing and their practical meaning in process engineering using examples selected from studies on bacteria, archaea, microscopic fungi and yeasts, viruses, and microalgae. All biological data are presented concerning the classification of EMF. Furthermore, we aimed to highlight missing parts of contemporary knowledge and indicate weak spots in the approaches found in the literature.

Demonstration of full tensor current density imaging using ultra-low field MRI

Direct imaging of impressed dc currents inside the head can provide valuable conductivity information, possibly improving electro-magnetic neuroimaging. Ultra-low field magnetic resonance imaging (ULF MRI) at μT Larmor fields can be utilized for current density imaging (CDI). Here, a measurable impact of the magnetic field B_J, generated by the impressed current density J, on the MR signal is probed using specialized sequences. In contrast to high-field MRI, the full tensor of B_J can be derived without rotation of the subject in the scanner, due to a larger flexibility in the sequence design. We present an ULF MRI setup based on a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID), which is operating at a noise level of 380 aT Hz^-1/2 and capable of switching all imaging fields within a pulse sequence. Thereby, the system enables zero-field encoding, where the full tensor of B_J is probed in the absence of other magnetic fields. 3D CDI is demonstrated on phantoms with different geometries carrying currents of approximately 2 mA corresponding to current densities between 0.45 and 8 A/m². By comparison to an in vivo acquired head image, we provide insights to necessary improvements in signal-to-noise ratio.

Optimized 3D co-registration of ultra-low-field and high-field magnetic resonance images

The prototypes of ultra-low-field (ULF) MRI scanners developed in recent years represent new, innovative, cost-effective and safer systems, which are suitable to be integrated in multi-modal (Magnetoencephalography and MRI) devices. Integrated ULF-MRI and MEG scanners could represent an ideal solution to obtain functional (MEG) and anatomical (ULF MRI) information in the same environment, without errors that may limit source reconstruction accuracy. However, the low resolution and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of ULF images, as well as their limited coverage, do not generally allow for the construction of an accurate individual volume conductor model suitable for MEG localization. Thus, for practical usage, a high-field (HF) MRI image is also acquired, and the HF-MRI images are co-registered to the ULF-MRI ones. We address here this issue through an optimized pipeline (SWIM—Sliding WIndow grouping supporting Mutual information). The co-registration is performed by an affine transformation, the parameters of which are estimated using Normalized Mutual Information as the cost function, and Adaptive Simulated Annealing as the minimization algorithm. The sub-voxel resolution of the ULF images is handled by a sliding-window approach applying multiple grouping strategies to down-sample HF MRI to the ULF-MRI resolution. The pipeline has been tested on phantom and real data from different ULF-MRI devices, and comparison with well-known toolboxes for fMRI analysis has been performed. Our pipeline always outperformed the fMRI toolboxes (FSL and SPM). The HF–ULF MRI co-registration obtained by means of our pipeline could lead to an effective integration of ULF MRI with MEG, with the aim of improving localization accuracy, but also to help exploit ULF MRI in tumor imaging.

SQUID-based detection of ultra-low-field multinuclear NMR of substances hyperpolarized using signal amplification by reversible exchange

Ultra-low-field (ULF) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a promising spectroscopy method allowing for, e.g., the simultaneous detection of multiple nuclei. To overcome the low signal-to-noise ratio that usually hampers a wider application, we present here an alternative approach to ULF NMR, which makes use of the hyperpolarizing technique signal amplification by reversible exchange (SABRE). In contrast to standard parahydrogen hyperpolarization, SABRE can continuously hyperpolarize 1 H as well as other MR-active nuclei. For simultaneous measurements of 1 H and 19 F under SABRE conditions a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)-based NMR detection unit was adapted. We successfully hyperpolarized fluorinated pyridine derivatives with an up to 2000-fold signal enhancement in 19 F. The detected signals may be explained by two alternative reaction mechanisms. SABRE combined with simultaneous SQUID-based broadband multinuclear detection may enable the quantitative analysis of multinuclear processes.

Development of a vector-tensor system to measure the absolute magnetic flux density and its gradient in magnetically shielded rooms

Several experiments in fundamental physics demand an environment of very low, homogeneous, and stable magnetic fields. For the magnetic characterization of such environments, we present a portable SQUID system that measures the absolute magnetic flux density vector and the gradient tensor. This vector-tensor system contains 13 integrated low-critical temperature (LTc) superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) inside a small cylindrical liquid helium Dewar with a height of 31 cm and 37 cm in diameter. The achievable resolution depends on the flux density of the field under investigation and its temporal drift. Inside a seven-layer mu-metal shield, an accuracy better than ±23 pT for the components of the static magnetic field vector and ±2 pT/cm for each of the nine components of the gradient tensor is reached by using the shifting method.

Strong pulsed excitations using circularly polarized fields for ultra-low field NMR

A pulse, which is produced by a single coil and thereby has a linear polarization, cannot coherently drive nuclear spins if the pulse is stronger than the static field B0. The inaccuracy of the pulse, which arises from the failure of the rotating wave approximation, has been an obstacle in adopting multiple pulse techniques in ultra-low field NMR where B0 is less than a few μT. Here, we show that such a limitation can be overcome by applying pulses of circular polarization using two orthogonal coils. The sinusoidal nutation of the nuclear spins was experimentally obtained, which indicates that coherent and precise controls of the nuclear spins can be achieved with circularly polarized pulses. Additional demonstration of the Carl-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill sequence verifies the feasibility of adopting multiple pulse sequences to ultra-low field NMR studies.

Numerical study of ultra-low field nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry utilizing a single axis magnetometer for signal detection

PURPOSE

This paper investigates optimal placement of a localized single-axis magnetometer for ultralow field (ULF) relaxometry in view of various sample shapes and sizes.

METHODS

The authors used finite element method for the numerical analysis to determine the sample magnetic field environment and evaluate the optimal location of the single-axis magnetometer.

RESULTS

Given the different samples, the authors analysed the magnetic field distribution around the sample and determined the optimal orientation and possible positions of the sensor to maximize signal strength, that is, the power of the free induction decay. The authors demonstrate that a glass vial with flat bottom and 10 ml volume is the best structure to achieve the highest signal out of samples studied.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper demonstrates the importance of taking into account the combined effects of sensor configuration and sample parameters for signal generation prior to designing and constructing ULF systems with a single-axis magnetometer. Through numerical simulations the authors were able to optimize structural parameters, such as sample shape and size, sensor orientation and location, to maximize the measured signal in ultralow field relaxometry.

An advanced phantom study assessing the feasibility of neuronal current imaging by ultra-low-field NMR

In ultra-low-field (ULF) NMR/MRI, a common scheme is to magnetize the sample by a polarizing field of up to hundreds of mT, after which the NMR signal, precessing in a field on the order of several μT, is detected with superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). In our ULF-NMR system, we polarize with up to 50mT and deploy a single-stage DC-SQUID current sensor with an integrated input coil which is connected to a wire-wound Nb gradiometer. We developed this system (white noise 0.50fT/√Hz) for assessing the feasibility of imaging neuronal currents by detecting their effect on the ULF-NMR signal. Magnetoencephalography investigations of evoked brain activity showed neuronal dipole moments below 50nAm. With our instrumentation, we have studied two different approaches for neuronal current imaging. In the so-called DC effect, long-lived neuronal activity shifts the Larmor frequency of the surrounding protons. An alternative strategy is to exploit fast neuronal activity as a tipping pulse. This so-called AC effect requires the proton Larmor frequency to match the frequency of the neuronal activity, which ranges from near-DC to ∼kHz. We emulated neuronal activity by means of a single dipolar source in a physical phantom, consisting of a hollow sphere filled with an aqueous solution of CuSO4 and NaCl. In these phantom studies, with physiologically relevant dipole depths, we determined resolution limits for our set-up for the AC and the DC effect of ∼10μAm and ∼50nAm, respectively. Hence, the DC effect appears to be detectable in vivo by current ULF-NMR technology.

Current-density imaging using ultra-low-field MRI with adiabatic pulses

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows measurement of electric current density in an object. The measurement is based on observing how the magnetic field of the current density affects the associated spins. However, as high-field MRI is sensitive to static magnetic field variations of only the field component along the main field direction, object rotations are typically needed to image three-dimensional current densities. Ultra-low-field (ULF) MRI, on the other hand, with B0 on the order of 10-100 μT, allows novel MRI sequences. We present a rotation-free method for imaging static magnetic fields and current densities using ULF MRI. The method utilizes prepolarization pulses with adiabatic switch-off ramps. The technique is designed to reveal complete field and current-density information without the need to rotate the object. The method may find applications, e.g., in conductivity imaging. We present simulation results showing the feasibility of the sequence.