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Podhorská B, Chylíková-Krumbholcová E, Dvořáková J, Šlouf M, Kobera L, Pop-Georgievski O, Frejková M, Proks V, Janoušková O, Filipová M, Chytil P. Soft Hydrogels with Double Porosity Modified with RGDS for Tissue Engineering. Macromol Biosci 2024; 24:e2300266. [PMID: 37821117 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202300266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
This study develops and characterizes novel biodegradable soft hydrogels with dual porosity based on N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymers cross-linked by hydrolytically degradable linkers. The structure and properties of the hydrogels are designed as scaffolds for tissue engineering and they are tested in vitro with model mesenchymal stem cells (rMSCs). Detailed morphological characterization confirms dual porosity suitable for cell growth and nutrient transport. The dual porosity of hydrogels slightly improves rMSCs proliferation compared to the hydrogel with uniform pores. In addition, the laminin coating supports the adhesion of rMSCs to the hydrogel surface. However, hydrogels modified by heptapeptide RGDSGGY significantly stimulate cell adhesion and growth. Moreover, the RGDS-modified hydrogels also affect the topology of proliferating rMSCs, ranging from single-cell to multicellular clusters. The 3D reconstruction of the hydrogels with cells obtained by laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) confirms cell penetration into the inner structure of the hydrogel and its corresponding microstructure. The prepared biodegradable oligopeptide-modified hydrogels with dual porosity are suitable candidates for further in vivo evaluation in soft tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohumila Podhorská
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Chylíková-Krumbholcová
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Dvořáková
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Šlouf
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Libor Kobera
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Ognen Pop-Georgievski
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Frejková
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Proks
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Olga Janoušková
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Filipová
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Chytil
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, Prague 6, 162 06, Czech Republic
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Nishiguchi A, Ito S, Nagasaka K, Komatsu H, Uto K, Taguchi T. Injectable microcapillary network hydrogels engineered by liquid-liquid phase separation for stem cell transplantation. Biomaterials 2024; 305:122451. [PMID: 38169189 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Injectable hydrogels are promising carriers for cell delivery in regenerative medicine. However, injectable hydrogels composed of crosslinked polymer networks are often non-microporous and prevent biological communication with host tissues through signals, nutrients, oxygen, and cells, thereby limiting graft survival and tissue integration. Here we report injectable hydrogels with liquid-liquid phase separation-induced microcapillary networks (μCN) as stem cell-delivering scaffolds. The molecular modification of gelatin with hydrogen bonding moieties induced liquid-liquid phase separation when mixed with unmodified gelatin to form μCN structures in the hydrogels. Through spatiotemporally controlled covalent crosslinking and dissolution processes, porous μCN structures were formed in the hydrogels, which can enhance mass transport and cellular activity. The encapsulation of cells with injectable μCN hydrogels improved cellular spreading, migration, and proliferation. Transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells with injectable μCN hydrogels enhanced graft survival and recovered hindlimb ischemia by enhancing material-tissue communication with biological signals and cells through μCN. This facile approach may serve as an advanced scaffold for improving stem cell transplantation therapies in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Nishiguchi
- Biomaterials Field, Research Center for Macromolecules and Biomaterials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044, Japan.
| | - Shima Ito
- Biomaterials Field, Research Center for Macromolecules and Biomaterials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044, Japan; Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Nagasaka
- Biomaterials Field, Research Center for Macromolecules and Biomaterials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044, Japan; Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan
| | - Hiyori Komatsu
- Biomaterials Field, Research Center for Macromolecules and Biomaterials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044, Japan; Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan
| | - Koichiro Uto
- Biomaterials Field, Research Center for Macromolecules and Biomaterials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044, Japan
| | - Tetsushi Taguchi
- Biomaterials Field, Research Center for Macromolecules and Biomaterials, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044, Japan; Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan.
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Macková H, Hlídková H, Kaberova Z, Proks V, Kučka J, Patsula V, Vetrik M, Janoušková O, Podhorská B, Pop-Georgievski O, Kubinová Š, Horák D. Thiolated poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) hydrogels as a degradable biocompatible scaffold for tissue engineering. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 131:112500. [PMID: 34857286 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Research of degradable hydrogel polymeric materials exhibiting high water content and mechanical properties resembling tissues is crucial not only in drug delivery systems but also in tissue engineering, medical devices, and biomedical-healthcare sensors. Therefore, we newly offer development of hydrogels based on poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate-co-2-(acetylthio) ethyl methacrylate-co-2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) [P(HEMA-ATEMA-MPC)] and optimization of their mechanical and in vitro and in vivo degradability. P(HEMA-ATEMA-MPC) hydrogels differed in chemical composition, degree of crosslinking, and starting molar mass of polymers (15, 19, and 30 kDa). Polymer precursors were synthesized by a reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization using 2-(acetylthio)ethyl methacrylate containing protected thiol groups, which enabled crosslinking and gel formation. Elastic modulus of hydrogels increased with the degree of crosslinking (Slaughter et al., 2009) [1]. In vitro and in vivo controlled degradation was confirmed using glutathione and subcutaneous implantation of hydrogels in rats, respectively. We proved that the hydrogels with higher degree of crosslinking retarded the degradation. Also, albumin, γ-globulin, and fibrinogen adsorption on P(HEMA-ATEMA-MPC) hydrogel surface was tested, to simulate adsorption in living organism. Rat mesenchymal stromal cell adhesion on hydrogels was improved by the presence of RGDS peptide and laminin on the hydrogels. We found that rat mesenchymal stromal cells proliferated better on laminin-coated hydrogels than on RGDS-modified ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Macková
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Helena Hlídková
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Zhansaya Kaberova
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Proks
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kučka
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vitalii Patsula
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Vetrik
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Olga Janoušková
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic; Jan Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Faculty of Science, Pasteurova 1, 400 96 Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
| | - Bohumila Podhorská
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ognen Pop-Georgievski
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Šárka Kubinová
- Institute of Physics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Na Slovance 1999/2, 182 21, Prague 8, Czech Republic; Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Horák
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
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Bai Q, Han K, Dong K, Zheng C, Zhang Y, Long Q, Lu T. Potential Applications of Nanomaterials and Technology for Diabetic Wound Healing. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:9717-9743. [PMID: 33299313 PMCID: PMC7721306 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s276001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic wound shows delayed and incomplete healing processes, which in turn exposes patients to an environment with a high risk of infection. This article has summarized current developments of nanoparticles/hydrogels and nanotechnology used for promoting the wound healing process in either diabetic animal models or patients with diabetes mellitus. These nanoparticles/hydrogels promote diabetic wound healing by loading bioactive molecules (such as growth factors, genes, proteins/peptides, stem cells/exosomes, etc.) and non-bioactive substances (metal ions, oxygen, nitric oxide, etc.). Among them, smart hydrogels (a very promising method for loading many types of bioactive components) are currently favored by researchers. In addition, nanoparticles/hydrogels can be combined with some technology (including PTT, LBL self-assembly technique and 3D-printing technology) to treat diabetic wound repair. By reviewing the recent literatures, we also proposed new strategies for improving multifunctional treatment of diabetic wounds in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Que Bai
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kai Han
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kai Dong
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Caiyun Zheng
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanni Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qianfa Long
- Mini-Invasive Neurosurgery and Translational Medical Center, Xi’an Central Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an710003, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tingli Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi710072, People’s Republic of China
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Wu G, Wang H, Xiao J, Wang L, Ke Y, Fang L, Deng C, Liao H. Blocking of matrix metalloproteinases-13 responsive peptide in poly(urethane urea) for potential cartilage tissue engineering applications. J Biomater Appl 2018; 32:999-1010. [PMID: 29359624 DOI: 10.1177/0885328217753414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The matching of scaffold degradation rate with neotissue growth is required for tissue engineering applications. Timely provision of proper spaces especially for cartilage tissue engineering plays a pivotal role in chondrocyte cluster formation. In this study, poly(urethane urea) was synthesized using conventional two-stage method by extending the isocyanate group terminated prepolymers with different amounts of GPLGLWARK peptide, which responses the degrading induced by matrix metalloproteinase 13, the main proteinase for cartilage matrix degradation. The Fourier transform infrared spectrometer with the attenuated total reflection and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectra revealed that the peptides were introduced to poly(urethane urea) according to the characteristic absorption bands of the peptide and the newly formed urea bonds. The ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy spectra showed that the weight percentages of the peptide in the three poly(urethane urea) were 25%, 32%, and 35%. Atomic force microscopy images revealed that phase separation occurred in all poly(urethane urea) samples and became increasingly apparent with increasing amount of peptides introduced. Mechanical tests showed that the poly(urethane urea) strength increased with increasing amount of peptides in poly(urethane urea). Poly(urethane urea) proteolysis in matrix metalloproteinase 13 solution was more rapid than hydrolysis in aqueous buffer, and proteolysis rate was dependent on the amount of peptides in poly(urethane urea). Cell proliferation on the material surface in vitro displayed nontoxicity for all synthesized poly(urethane urea). In vivo subcutaneous implantation evaluation revealed the presence of local foreign body reactions triggered by poly(urethane urea) but was not due to peptide in poly(urethane urea). Moreover, the synthesized poly(urethane urea) with significant phase separation did not degrade under the matrix metalloproteinase 13 free subcutaneous environment, but poly(urethane urea) with minimal phase separation was degraded by attacking of the enzymes adsorbed on the hydrophobic surface through non-specific adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wu
- 1 26467 School of Materials Science and Engineering , South China University of Technology, PR China.,2 Department of Anatomy, Southern Medical University, PR China.,3 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Jinan University, PR China
| | - Huan Wang
- 1 26467 School of Materials Science and Engineering , South China University of Technology, PR China
| | - Jiangwei Xiao
- 4 National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and Reconstruction, PR China
| | - Lilu Wang
- 1 26467 School of Materials Science and Engineering , South China University of Technology, PR China
| | - Yu Ke
- 5 Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering, PR China
| | - Liming Fang
- 1 26467 School of Materials Science and Engineering , South China University of Technology, PR China.,2 Department of Anatomy, Southern Medical University, PR China
| | - Chunlin Deng
- 1 26467 School of Materials Science and Engineering , South China University of Technology, PR China.,3 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Jinan University, PR China
| | - Hua Liao
- 4 National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and Reconstruction, PR China
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Çetin K, Alkan H, Bereli N, Denizli A. Molecularly imprinted cryogel as a pH-responsive delivery system for doxorubicin. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2017.1320757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Çetin
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry Division, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry Division, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Hüseyin Alkan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, Turkey
| | - Nilay Bereli
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry Division, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Adil Denizli
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry Division, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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Acun A, Hasirci V. Construction of a collagen-based, split-thickness cornea substitute. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2014; 25:1110-32. [PMID: 24865867 DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2014.920170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Tissue-engineered corneas may become a promising alternative to allografts in the treatment of serious cornea defects because of the tunable characteristics of the biomaterials, biomimetic designs, and incorporation of patient's own cells. In this study, collagen foam was coated with a fibrous mat to mimic the stromal layer and the Bowman's layer. The stromal layer substitute was made of N-ethyl-N-(3-dimethyl aminopropyl)carbodiimide/N-hydroxysuccinimide-cross-linked collagen-chondroitin sulfate foam and seeded with primary human corneal keratocytes (HK). Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells served as the epithelial layer after seeding on a dehydrothermally cross-linked collagen type I fibrous mat deposited directly on top of the foams by electrospinning. The physical characterization and the in vitro studies showed that the designed cornea replacement was suitable for cell attachment and growth, and co-culture of the two cell types induced more extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition than the single cell-seeded constructs. The fiber layer was shown to be successful in separating the HK and RPE cells, and still allowed them to maintain cell-cell communication as the increase in ECM deposition and the maintenance of the high transparency (~80%) suggested. This split-thickness corneal substitute was also shown to be readily suturable without any major tears at the end of a short co-culture of 30 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Acun
- a Department of Biotechnology , Middle East Technical University (METU) , Ankara 06800 , Turkey
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Sokic S, Christenson M, Larson J, Papavasiliou G. In Situ Generation of Cell-Laden Porous MMP-Sensitive PEGDA Hydrogels by Gelatin Leaching. Macromol Biosci 2014; 14:731-9. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201300406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Sokic
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Illinois Institute of Technology; 3255 South Dearborn Street Wishnick Hall Room 223 Chicago, IL 60616 USA
| | - Megan Christenson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Illinois Institute of Technology; 3255 South Dearborn Street Wishnick Hall Room 223 Chicago, IL 60616 USA
| | - Jeffery Larson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Illinois Institute of Technology; 3255 South Dearborn Street Wishnick Hall Room 223 Chicago, IL 60616 USA
| | - Georgia Papavasiliou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Illinois Institute of Technology; 3255 South Dearborn Street Wishnick Hall Room 223 Chicago, IL 60616 USA
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Kharkar PM, Kiick KL, Kloxin AM. Designing degradable hydrogels for orthogonal control of cell microenvironments. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:7335-72. [PMID: 23609001 PMCID: PMC3762890 DOI: 10.1039/c3cs60040h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 476] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Degradable and cell-compatible hydrogels can be designed to mimic the physical and biochemical characteristics of native extracellular matrices and provide tunability of degradation rates and related properties under physiological conditions. Hence, such hydrogels are finding widespread application in many bioengineering fields, including controlled bioactive molecule delivery, cell encapsulation for controlled three-dimensional culture, and tissue engineering. Cellular processes, such as adhesion, proliferation, spreading, migration, and differentiation, can be controlled within degradable, cell-compatible hydrogels with temporal tuning of biochemical or biophysical cues, such as growth factor presentation or hydrogel stiffness. However, thoughtful selection of hydrogel base materials, formation chemistries, and degradable moieties is necessary to achieve the appropriate level of property control and desired cellular response. In this review, hydrogel design considerations and materials for hydrogel preparation, ranging from natural polymers to synthetic polymers, are overviewed. Recent advances in chemical and physical methods to crosslink hydrogels are highlighted, as well as recent developments in controlling hydrogel degradation rates and modes of degradation. Special attention is given to spatial or temporal presentation of various biochemical and biophysical cues to modulate cell response in static (i.e., non-degradable) or dynamic (i.e., degradable) microenvironments. This review provides insight into the design of new cell-compatible, degradable hydrogels to understand and modulate cellular processes for various biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prathamesh M. Kharkar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA . ;
| | - Kristi L. Kiick
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA . ;
- Biomedical Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA
- Delaware Biotechnology Institute , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA
| | - April M. Kloxin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA . ;
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA
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