Tailoring the degradation and biological response of a magnesium–strontium alloy for potential bone substitute application

Mussel inspired 3D elastomer enabled rapid calvarial bone regeneration through recruiting more osteoprogenitors from the dura mater

Currently, the successful healing of critical-sized calvarial bone defects remains a considerable challenge. The immune response plays a key role in regulating bone regeneration after material grafting. Previous studies mainly focused on the relationship between macrophages and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), while dural cells were recently found to play a vital role in the calvarial bone healing. In this study, a series of 3D elastomers with different proportions of polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) were fabricated, which were further supplemented with polydopamine (PDA) coating. The physicochemical properties of the PCL/PGS and PCL/PGS/PDA grafts were measured, and then they were implanted as filling materials for 8 mm calvarial bone defects. The results showed that a matched and effective PDA interface formed on a well-proportioned elastomer, which effectively modulated the polarization of M2 macrophages and promoted the recruitment of dural cells to achieve full-thickness bone repair through both intramembranous and endochondral ossification. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis revealed the predominance of dural cells during bone healing and their close relationship with macrophages. The findings illustrated that the crosstalk between dural cells and macrophages determined the vertical full-thickness bone repair for the first time, which may be the new target for designing bone grafts for calvarial bone healing.

Comprehensive review of materials, applications, and future innovations in biodegradable esophageal stents

Esophageal stricture (ES) results from benign and malignant conditions, such as uncontrolled gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and esophageal neoplasms. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is the preferred diagnostic approach for ES and its underlying causes. Stent insertion using an endoscope is a prevalent method for alleviating or treating ES. Nevertheless, the widely used self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) and self-expandable plastic stents (SEPS) can result in complications such as migration and restenosis. Furthermore, they necessitate secondary extraction in cases of benign esophageal stricture (BES), rendering them unsatisfactory for clinical requirements. Over the past 3 decades, significant attention has been devoted to biodegradable materials, including synthetic polyester polymers and magnesium-based alloys, owing to their exceptional biocompatibility and biodegradability while addressing the challenges associated with recurring procedures after BES resolves. Novel esophageal stents have been developed and are undergoing experimental and clinical trials. Drug-eluting stents (DES) with drug-loading and drug-releasing capabilities are currently a research focal point, offering more efficient and precise ES treatments. Functional innovations have been investigated to optimize stent performance, including unidirectional drug-release and anti-migration features. Emerging manufacturing technologies such as three-dimensional (3D) printing and new biodegradable materials such as hydrogels have also contributed to the innovation of esophageal stents. The ultimate objective of the research and development of these materials is their clinical application in the treatment of ES and other benign conditions and the palliative treatment of malignant esophageal stricture (MES). This review aimed to offer a comprehensive overview of current biodegradable esophageal stent materials and their applications, highlight current research limitations and innovations, and offer insights into future development priorities and directions.

An osteogenic magnesium alloy with improved corrosion resistance, antibacterial, and mechanical properties for orthopedic applications

The aim of this study was to develop a novel biodegradable magnesium (Mg) alloy for bone implant applications. We used scandium (Sc; 2 wt %) and strontium (Sr; 2 wt %) as alloying elements due to their high biocompatibility, antibacterial efficacy, osteogenesis, and protective effects against corrosion. In the present work, we also examined the effect of a heat treatment process on the properties of the Mg-Sc-Sr alloy. Alloys were manufactured using a metal casting process followed by heat treatment. The microstructure, corrosion, mechanical properties, antibacterial activity, and osteogenic activity of the alloy were assessed in vitro. The results showed that the incorporation of Sc and Sr elements controlled the corrosion, reduced the hydrogen generation, and enhanced mechanical properties. Furthermore, alloying with Sc and Sr demonstrated a significantly enhanced antibacterial activity and decreased biofilm formation compared to control Mg. Also, culturing Mg-Sc-Sr alloy with human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells showed a high degree of biocompatibility (>90% live cells) and a significant increase in osteoblastic differentiation in vitro shown by Alizarin red staining and alkaline phosphatase activity. Based on these results, the Mg-Sc-Sr alloy heat-treated at 400°C displayed optimal mechanical properties, corrosion rate, antibacterial efficacy, and osteoinductivity. These characteristics make the Mg-Sc-Sr alloy a promising candidate for biodegradable orthopedic implants in the fixation of bone fractures such as bone plate-screws or intramedullary nails.

Study on Material Design and Corrosion Resistance Based on Multi-Principal Component Alloying Theory

This study mainly attempts to develop Mg-based alloy materials with excellent corrosion resistance by means of multi-principal alloying. The alloy elements are determined based on the multi-principal alloy elements and the performance requirements of the components of biomaterials. Mg₃₀Zn₃₀Sn₃₀Sr₅Bi₅ alloy was successfully prepared by vacuum magnetic levitation melting. Through the electrochemical corrosion test with m-SBF solution (pH7.4) as the electrolyte, the corrosion rate of alloy Mg₃₀Zn₃₀Sn₃₀Sr₅Bi₅ alloy decreased to 20% of pure Mg. It could also be seen from the polarization curve that when the self-corrosion current density is low, the alloy shows superior corrosion resistance. Nevertheless, with the increase in self-corrosion current density, although the anodic corrosion performance of the alloy is obviously better than that of pure Mg, the cathode shows the opposite situation. The Nyquist diagram shows that the self-corrosion potential of the alloy is much higher than that of pure Mg. In general, under the condition of low self-corrosion current density, the alloy materials display excellent corrosion resistance. It is proved that the multi-principal alloying method is of positive significance for improving the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys.

Magnesium for Implants: A Review on the Effect of Alloying Elements on Biocompatibility and Properties

An attempt is made to cover the whole of the topic of biodegradable magnesium (Mg) alloys with a focus on the biocompatibility of the individual alloying elements, as well as shed light on the degradation characteristics, microstructure, and mechanical properties of most binary alloys. Some of the various work processes carried out by researchers to achieve the alloys and their surface modifications have been highlighted. Additionally, a brief look into the literature on magnesium composites as also been included towards the end, to provide a more complete picture of the topic. In most cases, the chronological order of events has not been particularly followed, and instead, this work is concentrated on compiling and presenting an update of the work carried out on the topic of biodegradable magnesium alloys from the recent literature available to us.

Dynamic degradation patterns of porous polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate composites orchestrate macrophage responses and immunoregulatory bone regeneration

Biodegradable polycaprolactone/β-tricalcium phosphate (PT) composites are desirable candidates for bone tissue engineering applications. A higher β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) ceramic content improves the mechanical, hydrophilic and osteogenic properties of PT scaffolds in vitro. Using a dynamic degradation reactor, we established a steady in vitro degradation model to investigate the changes in the physio-chemical and biological properties of PT scaffolds during degradation.PT46 and PT37 scaffolds underwent degradation more rapidly than PT scaffolds with lower TCP contents. In vivo studies revealed the rapid degradation of PT (PT46 and PT37) scaffolds disturbed macrophage responses and lead to bone healing failure. Macrophage co-culture assays and a subcutaneous implantation model indicated that the scaffold degradation process dynamically affected macrophage responses, especially polarization. RNA-Seq analysis indicated phagocytosis of the degradation products of PT37 scaffolds induces oxidative stress and inflammatory M1 polarization in macrophages. Overall, this study reveals that the dynamic patterns of biodegradation of degradable bone scaffolds highly orchestrate immune responses and thus determine the success of bone regeneration. Therefore, through evaluation of the biological effects of biomaterials during the entire process of degradation on immune responses and bone regeneration are necessary in order to develop more promising biomaterials for bone regeneration.

A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of Biomedical Mg Alloy and Surface Coatings in Orthopedic Application

Magnesium alloys have great application prospects as ideal bone implant materials. However, their poor corrosion resistance limits their clinical orthopedic application. Surface modification promotes the corrosion resistance of magnesium. Conversion coatings, such as calcium phosphate (Ca-P) coating, microarc oxidation (MAO) treatment, and fluoride (FLU) treatment, have been extensively investigated in in vivo studies. This systematic review and network meta-analysis compared the influence of different conversion coatings on bone repair, material properties, and systemic host response in orthopedic applications. Using the PICOS model, the inclusion criteria for biodegradable magnesium and its alloys were determined for in vivo studies. Four databases were used. The standard and weight mean differences with 95% confidence intervals were used to analyze new bone formation and degradation rate. Network structure and forest plots were created, and ranking probabilities were estimated. The risk of bias and quality of evidence were assessed using SYRCLE, CERQual, and GRADE tools. In the qualitative analysis, 43 studies were selected, and the evaluation of each outcome indicator was not entirely consistent from article to article. In the quantitative analysis, 21 articles were subjected to network meta-analysis, with 16 articles on implant degradation and 8 articles for new bone formation. Additionally, SUCRA indicated that Ca-P coating exhibited the highest corrosion resistance, followed by FLU treatment. MAO demonstrated the best capability for new bone formation, followed by Ca-P coating. Ca-P coating exhibited the highest overall performance. To conclude, coated Mg can promote better new bone formation than bare Mg and has considerable biocompatibility. Ca-P-coated Mg and MAO-coated Mg have the greatest potential to significantly promote corrosion resistance and bone regeneration, respectively. The findings of this study will provide a theoretical basis for the investigation of composite coatings and guidance for the orthopedic application of Mg bone implants.

Biosafety and biodegradation studies of AZ31B magnesium alloy carotid artery stent in vitro and in vivo

Biosafety of AZ31B magnesium (Mg) alloy and the effect of its degradation products on tissues, organs, and whole systems are highly needed to be evaluated before clinical application. This study serves a wide variety of safety evaluations of biodegradable AZ31B alloy on nerve cells. As a result of this in vitro study, the maximum aluminum (Al) ion and Mg ion concentrations in the medium were estimated to be 22 μmol/L and 2.75 mmol/L, respectively, during degradation. In addition, the corresponding cell mortality was observed to be 36% and lower than 5% according to the resistance curves of the cell to Mg and Al ions. Furthermore, the maximum Al ion and Mg ion concentrations in serum and cerebrospinal fluid were detected to be 26.1 μmol/L and 1.2 mmol/L, respectively, for 5 months implantation. Combining the result of in vivo dialysis with the result of ion tolerance assay experiments, the actual death rate of nerve cells is estimated between 4 and 10% in vivo, which is lower than the result of in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation. Moreover, no psychomotor disability during clinical studies is observed. Consequently, stent made of AZ31B alloy with surface treatment is feasible for carotid artery stenosis, and it is safe in terms of cell viability on the nervous system.

The effect of different coatings on bone response and degradation behavior of porous magnesium-strontium devices in segmental defect regeneration

Regeneration of long-bone segmental defects remains a challenge for orthopedic surgery. Current treatment options often require several revision procedures to maintain acceptable alignment and achieve osseous healing. A novel hollow tubular system utilizing magnesium-strontium (Mg-Sr) alloy with autogenous morselized bone filled inside to repair segmental defects was developed. To improve the corrosion and biocompatible properties, two coatings, Ca-P and Sr-P coatings, were prepared on surface of the implants. Feasibility of applying these coated implants was systematically evaluated in vitro and in vivo, and simultaneously to have a better understanding on the relationship of degradation and bone regeneration on the healing process. According to the in vitro corrosion study by electrochemical measurements, greater corrosion resistance was obtained for Ca-P coated sample, and attributed to the double-layer protective structure. The cytotoxicity and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) assays demonstrated enhanced bioactivity for Sr-P coated group because of the long-lasting release of beneficial Sr2+. At 12 weeks post-implantation with Mg-Sr alloy porous device, the segmental defects were effectively repaired with respect to both integrity and continuity. In addition, compared with the Ca-P coated implant, the Sr-P coated implant was more proficient at promoting bone formation and mineralization. In summary, the Sr-P coated implants have bioactive properties and exceptional durability, and promote bone healing that is close to the natural rate, implying their potential application for the regeneration of segmental defects.

Biodegradable magnesium-based biomaterials: An overview of challenges and opportunities

As promising biodegradable materials with nontoxic degradation products, magnesium (Mg) and its alloys have received more and more attention in the biomedical field very recently. Having excellent biocompatibility and unique mechanical properties, magnesium-based alloys currently cover a broad range of applications in the biomedical field. The use of Mg-based biomedical devices eliminates the need for biomaterial removal surgery after the healing process and reduces adverse effects induced by the implantation of permanent biomaterials. However, the high corrosion rate of Mg-based implants leads to unexpected degradation, structural failure, hydrogen evolution, alkalization, and cytotoxicity. To overcome these limitations, alloying Mg with suitable alloying elements and surface treatment come highly recommended. In this area, open questions remain on the behavior of Mg-based biomaterials in the human body and the effects of different factors that have resulted in these challenges. In addition to that, many techniques are yet to be verified to turn these challenges into opportunities. Accordingly, this article aims to review major challenges and opportunities for Mg-based biomaterials to minimize the challenges for the development of novel biomaterials made of Mg and its alloys.

Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate-loaded micro-arc oxidation coating for biodegradable magnesium alloy pellets inhibits osteosarcoma through targeting of the mevalonate pathway

Osteosarcoma (OS) remains one of the most threatening primary malignant human tumors of the bone, especially in the first or second decade of life. Unfortunately, the clinical therapeutic efficacy has not substantially improved over the past four decades. Therefore, to achieve efficient tumor eradication, a new approach to prevent tumor recurrence is urgently needed. Here, we develop a new bisphosphonate (BP)-loaded microarc oxidation (MAO) coated magnesium-strontium (Mg-Sr) alloy pellet that can inhibit OS, and we illuminate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the inhibiting effect. To generate such pellets, nitrogen-containing BP is chemically conjugated with a MAO coating on hollow Mg-Sr alloys. We demonstrate that BP coated Mg pellet has multiple desired features for OS therapy through in vitro and in vivo studies. At the cellular level, BP coated Mg pellets not only induce apoptosis and necrosis, as well as antitumor invasion of OS cells in the two-dimensional (2D) cell culture environment, but also damage the formation of multicellular tumor spheroids by OS cell lines in the three-dimensional (3D) cell culture environment. At the in vivo level, BP coated Mg pellets can destroy tumors and prevent neoplasm recurrence via synergistic Mg degradation and drug release. It is further suggested that the superior inhibitory effect on OS of our pellet is achieved by inhibiting the mevalonate pathway at the molecular level. Hence, these results collectively show that the BP coated Mg pellet is a promising candidate for future applications in repairing defects after tumor removal in OS therapy.

Customized Borosilicate Bioglass Scaffolds With Excellent Biodegradation and Osteogenesis for Mandible Reconstruction

Graft reconstruction of the mandible is an important approach that aims at improving the appearance and functionality of defected mandibles. The traditional implant materials are generally bioinert, non-degradable, and that they lack favorable pore structures for cell proliferation, which limit their clinical application. In this study, we used boron-containing bioactive glass which was combined with a three-dimensional (3D) printing technology to construct an osteoinductive implant scaffold, according to the imaging instructions of CT scan on bone defects. Here, the boron-containing bioglass scaffold (B-BGs) was prepared through sol-gel processing and a 3D print technique. Different boron content of borosilicate bioglass was prepared by incorporating B₂O₃ (molar: 19.4 and 38.8%) into 58S bioglass to replace parts of SiO₂. For fabricated mandible implants through three-dimensional 3D printing of B-BGs (size: 8 × 2 mm; pore size: 250 μm) modified with borosilicate bioglass powder and sodium alginate. Notably, the compressive strength of the B-BGs was about 3.8 Mpa, which supported mandibular activity. Subsequently, the excellent biocompatibility of B-BGs was confirmed using cytotoxicity in vitro studies. Finally, data from in vivo experiments demonstrated that the B-BGs could promote bone regeneration and they could almost get completely degraded within 4 weeks. Our results showed that the boron-containing bioglass could repair mandibular defects.

Targeting Local Osteogenic and Ancillary Cells by Mechanobiologically Optimized Magnesium Scaffolds for Orbital Bone Reconstruction in Canines

Large-sized orbital bone defects have serious consequences that destroy orbital integrity and result in maxillofacial deformities and vision loss. The treatment of orbital bone defects is currently palliative and not reparative, suggesting an urgent demand for biomaterials that regenerate orbital bones. In this study, via alloying, extrusion and surface modification, we developed mechanobiologically optimized magnesium (Mg) scaffolds (Ca-P-coated Mg-Zn-Gd scaffolds, referred to as Ca-P-Mg) for the orthotopic reconstruction of large-sized orbital bone defects. At 6 months after transplanting the scaffolds to a clinically relevant canine large animal model, large-sized defects were successfully bridged by an abundance of new bone with normal mechanical properties that corresponded to gradual degradation of the implants. The osteogenic and ancillary cells, including vascular endothelial cells and trigeminal neurons, played important roles in this process. The scaffolds robustly enhanced bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) osteogenic differentiation. In addition, the increased angiogenesis including increased ratio of the specific endothelial subtype CD31^hi endomucin^hi (CD31^hiEmcn^hi) endothelial cells can facilitate osteogenesis. Furthermore, the scaffolds trigger trigeminal neurons via transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1 (Trpv1) to produce the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), which promotes angiogenesis and osteogenesis. Overall, our investigations revealed the efficacy of Ca-P-Mg scaffolds in healing orbital bone defects and warrant further exploration of these scaffolds for clinical applications.

In vivo study of microarc oxidation coated Mg alloy as a substitute for bone defect repairing: Degradation behavior, mechanical properties, and bone response

Large segmental bone defect healing remains a great challenge in clinic. Limited by the source of autograft, bone graft substitute tends to be the research focus. In the present study, we propose a strategy by using microarc oxidation (MAO) coated magnesium scaffold as a large segmental bone graft substitute, utilizing its combination of strength, degradability, and controllable corrosion rate. Bare substrate, 10 μm and 20 μm thick MAO coated Mg scaffolds were implanted into ulna bone of New Zealand white rabbits, employing a 15 mm wide bone defect model. The biocompatibility and in vivo degradation of the implants, the bone defect healing response, and mechanical properties of the injured bone were investigated. The surface cytocompatibility evaluation results show that the MAO coated Mg are more suitable for cell proliferation. Micro-CT results show that abundant new bone formed and initially bridged the 15 mm gap at 8 weeks. Histological results indicate the newly formed bone was full of maturation at 12 weeks. Three point bending tests reveal that the injured bone possessed sufficient mechanical strength after 12 weeks. A 3-step in vivo degradation mechanism was proposed for the implants. In summary, we observed an actual trial of 15 mm wide bone defect healing where the newly formed bone bridged the bone gap at 8 weeks successfully. These data suggest a great potential of MAO coated magnesium to be a bone graft substitute.

Degradable magnesium-based alloys for biomedical applications: The role of critical alloying elements

Magnesium-based alloys exhibit biodegradable, biocompatible and excellent mechanical properties which enable them to serve as ideal candidate biomedical materials. In particular, their biodegradable ability helps patients to avoid a second surgery. The corrosion rate, however, is too rapid to sustain the healing process. Alloying is an effective method to slow down the corrosion rate. However, currently magnesium alloys used as biomaterials are mostly commercial alloys without considering cytotoxicity from the perspective of biosafety. This article comprehensively reviews the status of various existing and newly developed degradable magnesium-based alloys specially designed for biomedical application. The effects of critical alloying elements, compositions, heat treatment and processing technology on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys are discussed in detail. This article covers Mg-Ca based, Mg-Zn based, Mg-Sr based, Mg-RE based and Mg-Cu-based alloy systems. The novel methods of fabricating Mg-based biomaterials and surface treatment on Mg based alloys for potential biomedical applications are summarized.

In vitro cellular testing of strontium/calcium substituted phosphate glass discs and microspheres shows potential for bone regeneration

Phosphate-based glasses (PBGs) are ideal materials for regenerative medicine strategies because their composition, degradation rates, and ion release profiles can easily be controlled. Strontium has previously been found to simultaneously affect bone resorption and deposition. Therefore, by combining the inherent properties of resorbable PBG and therapeutic activity of strontium, these glasses could be used as a delivery device of therapeutic factors for the treatment of orthopaedic diseases such as osteoporosis. This study shows the cytocompatibility and osteogenic potential of PBGs where CaO is gradually replaced by SrO in the near invert glass system 40P2 O5 ·(16-x)CaO·20Na2 O·24MgO·xSrO (x = 0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 mol%). Direct seeding of MG63 cells onto glass discs showed no significant difference in cell metabolic activity and DNA amount measurement across the different formulations studied. Cell attachment and spreading was confirmed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging at Days 3 and 14. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity was similarly maintained across the glass compositions. Follow-on studies explored the effect of each glass composition in microsphere conformation (size: 63-125 μm) on human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in 3D cultures, and analysis of cell metabolic activity and ALP activity showed no significant differences at Day 14 over the compositional range investigated, in line with the observations from MG63 cell culture studies. Environmental SEM and live cell imaging at Day 14 of hMSCs seeded on the microspheres showed cell attachment and colonisation of the microsphere surfaces, confirming these formulations as promising candidates for regenerative medicine strategies addressing compromised musculoskeletal/orthopaedic diseases.

Bone regeneration of hollow tubular magnesium‑strontium scaffolds in critical-size segmental defects: Effect of surface coatings

Segmental defects are formidable challenges for orthopedic surgeons that are caused by large osseous defects such as open injury, comminuted fracture as well as other severe traumas and infection. Current treatment options have practical and clinical shortcomings, calling for innovative bone graft materials. This study is related to hollow tubular magnesium‑strontium (MgSr) alloy scaffolds with autologous morselized bone filled inside and three different coatings were individually applied on MgSr scaffolds, respectively, to study the effects of degradation and bioactivity of the grafts on new bone growth. The optimal coating method was screened using immersion tests, cell proliferation and adhesion, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) assay in vitro, and 4 weeks' implantation in a critical-size segmental defect in vivo. More new bone formation was observed by radiographic tests and histology along the ulna defects, when magnesium scaffold grafts were implanted. Meanwhile, depression occurred for blank control group with only autologous morselized bone filled, because of rapid absorption rate of morselized bone during initial implantation. Therefore, biodegradable MgSr alloy grafts showed their potential application in treating the critical-size segmental defects. As for different coating methods, CaP chemically deposited (CaP) coated sample showed least H₂ evolution in vivo, demonstrating highest corrosion resistance and relative stable interfaces, however, the least beneficial ion release meanwhile. Micro-arc oxidation coating (MAO) degraded faster comparing with CaP, while with the main composition of MgO. They both indicate insufficient bioactivity in bone formation. The results suggest superior combination of bioactive surface, beneficial ions release and appropriate corrosion rate of Strontium phosphate conversion (SrP) coating, indicating superior comprehensive oeteoconductive and osteoinductive properties of coatings on hollow tubular MgSr alloy scaffold.

The Role of Strontium Enriched Hydroxyapatite and Tricalcium Phosphate Biomaterials in Osteoporotic Bone Regeneration

Background: Strontium (Sr) enriched biomaterials have been used to improve bone regeneration in vivo. However, most studies provide only two experimental groups. The aim of our study was to compare eleven different bone sample groups from osteoporotic and healthy rabbits’ femoral neck, as it is the most frequent osteoporotic fracture in humans. Methods: Osteoporotic bone defects were filled with hydroxyapatite 30% (HA) and tricalcium phosphate 70% (TCP), 5% Sr-enriched HA30/TCP70, HA70/TCP30, or Sr-HA70/TCP30 granules and were compared with intact leg, sham surgery and healthy non-operated bone. Expression of osteoprotegerin (OPG), nuclear factor kappa beta 105 (NFkB-105), osteocalcin (OC), bone morphogenetic protein 2/4 (BMP-2/4), collagen I (Col-1α), matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2), interleukin 1 (IL-1) and interleukin 10 (IL-10) was analyzed by histomorphometry and immunohistochemistry. Results: Our study showed that Sr-HA70/TCP30 induced higher expression of all above-mentioned factors compared to intact leg and even higher expression of OC, MMP-2 and NFkB-105 compared to Sr-HA30/TCP70. HA70/TCP30 induced higher level of NFkB-105 and IL-1 compared to HA30/TCP70. Conclusion: Sr-enriched biomaterials improved bone regeneration at molecular level in severe osteoporosis and induced activity of the factors was higher than after pure ceramic, sham or even healthy rabbits.

Regulation of osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis by zoledronic acid loaded on biodegradable magnesium-strontium alloy

Inhibiting osteoclasts and osteoclast precursors to reduce bone resorption is an important strategy to treat osteoclast-related diseases, such as peri-prosthetic osteolysis. In this study, our objective was to study the role of zoledronic acid (ZA), as a highly potent and nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate, in promoting osteogenesis and inhibiting osteoclastogenesis properties of magnesium (Mg)-based implants. ZA was chemically associated with calcium phosphate (CaP) deposited on magnesium-strontium (Mg-Sr) alloy, which was confirmed by the morphological observation, phase composition and drug releasing via SEM, XRD spectrum and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), respectively. The in vitro performances indicated that ZA-CaP bilayer coating Mg-Sr alloy could enhance the proliferation and the osteogenic differentiation as well as the mineralization of pre-osteoblasts, however, induce the apoptosis and inhibit the osteoclast differentiation. We further investigated the possible molecular mechanisms by using Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western Blotting, and the results showed that ZA-CaP bilayer coating Mg-Sr alloy could regulate the osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis through the Estrogen Receptor α (ERα) and NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, ZA-CaP bilayer coating Mg-Sr alloy could regulate the cross talk of osteoblast-osteoclast and increase the ratio of OPG: RANKL in the co-culture system through OPG/RANKL/RANK signaling pathway, which promoting the balance of bone remodeling process. Therefore, these promising results suggest the potential clinical applications of ZA pretreated Mg-Sr alloys for bone defect repairs and periprosthetical osteolysis due to the excessive differentitation and maturation of osteoclasts.

Phenolic Modified Ceramic Coating on Biodegradable Mg Alloy: The Improved Corrosion Resistance and Osteoblast-Like Cell Activity

Magnesium alloys have great potential for developing orthopedic implants due to their biodegradability and mechanical properties, but the rapid corrosion rate of the currently-available alloys limits their clinical applications. To increase the corrosion resistance of the substrate, a protective ceramic coating is constructed by a micro-arc oxidation (MAO) process on ZK60 magnesium alloy. The porous ceramic coating is mainly composed of magnesium oxide and magnesium silicate, and the results from cell cultures show it can stimulate osteoblastic cell growth and proliferation. Moreover, gallic acid, a phenolic compound, was successfully introduced onto the MAO coating by grafting on hydrated oxide and chelating with magnesium ions. The gallic acid and rough surface of MAO altered the cell attachment behavior, making it difficult for fibroblasts to adhere to the MAO coating. The viability tests showed that gallic acid could suppress fibroblast growth and stimulate osteoblastic cell proliferation. Overall, the porous MAO coating combined with gallic acid offered a novel strategy for increasing osteocompatibility.

Magnesium-based biodegradable alloys: Degradation, application, and alloying elements

In recent years, the paradigm about the metal with improved corrosion resistance for application in surgery and orthopedy was broken. The new class of biodegradable metal emerges as an alternative for biomedical implants. These metals corrode gradually with an appropriate host response and release of corrosion products. And it is absolutely necessary to use essential metals metabolized by hosting organism with local and general nontoxic effect. Magnesium serves this aim best; it plays the essential role in body metabolism and should be completely excreted within a few days after degradation. This review summarizes data from Mg discovery and its first experimental and clinical application of modern concept of Mg alloy development. We focused on biodegradable metal application in general surgery and orthopedic practice and showed the advantages and disadvantages Mg alloys offer. We focused on methods of in vitro and in vivo investigation of degradable Mg alloys and correlation between these methods. Based on the observed data, a better way for new alloy pre-clinical investigation is suggested. This review analyzes possible alloying elements that improve corrosion rate, mechanical properties, and gives the appropriate host response.

Corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of magnesium alloy modified by alkali heating treatment followed by the immobilization of poly (ethylene glycol), fibronectin and heparin

In recent years, magnesium alloys are attracting more and more attention as a kind of biodegradable metallic biomaterials, however, their uncontrollable biodegradation speed in vivo and the limited surface biocompatibility hinder their clinical applications. In the present study, with the aim of improving the corrosion resistance and biocompatibility, the magnesium alloy (AZ31B) surface was modified by alkali heating treatment followed by the self-assembly of 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTMS). Subsequently, poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) and fibronectin or fibronectin/heparin complex were sequentially immobilized on the modified surface. The results of attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed that the above molecules were successfully immobilized on the magnesium alloy surface. An excellent hydrophilic surface was obtained after the alkali heating treatment while the hydrophilicity decreased to some degree after the self-assembly of APTMS, the surface hydrophilicity was gradually improved again after the immobilization of PEG, fibronectin or fibronectin/heparin complex. The corrosion resistance of the control magnesium alloy was significantly improved by the alkali heating treatment. The self-assembly of APTMS and the following immobilization of PEG further enhanced the corrosion resistance of the substrates, however, the grafting of fibronectin or fibronectin/heparin complex slightly lowered the corrosion resistance. As compared to the pristine magnesium alloy, the samples modified by the immobilization of PEG and fibronectin/heparin complex presented better blood compatibility according to the results of hemolysis assay and platelet adhesion as well as the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT). In addition, the modified substrates had better cytocompatibility to endothelial cells due to the improved anticorrosion and the introduction of fibronectin. The substrates modified by fibronectin or fibronectin/heparin complex can significantly promote endothelial cell adhesion and proliferation. Taking all these results into consideration, the method of the present study can be used for the surface modification of the magnesium alloy to simultaneously impart it better corrosion resistance, favorable blood compatibility and good cytocompatibility to endothelial cells.

Stimulatory effects of the degradation products from Mg-Ca-Sr alloy on the osteogenesis through regulating ERK signaling pathway

The influence of Mg-1Ca-xwt.% Sr (x = 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0) alloys on the osteogenic differentiation and mineralization of pre-osteoblast MC3T3-E1 were studied through typical differentiation markers, such as intracellular alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, extracellular collagen secretion and calcium nodule formation. It was shown that Mg-1Ca alloys with different content of Sr promoted cell viability and enhanced the differentiation and mineralization levels of osteoblasts, and Mg-1Ca-2.0Sr alloy had the most remarkable and significant effect among all. To further investigate the underlying mechanisms, RT-PCR and Western Blotting assays were taken to analyze the mRNA expression level of osteogenesis-related genes and intracellular signaling pathways involved in osteogenesis, respectively. RT-PCR results showed that Mg-1Ca-2.0Sr alloy significantly up-regulated the expressions of the transcription factors of Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) and Osterix (OSX), Integrin subunits, as well as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Bone sialoprotein (BSP), Collagen I (COL I), Osteocalcin (OCN) and Osteopontin (OPN). Western Blotting results suggested that Mg-1Ca-2.0Sr alloy rapidly induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation but showed no obvious effects on c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 kinase of MAPK. Taken together, our results demonstrated that Mg-1Ca-2.0Sr alloy had excellent biocompatibility and osteogenesis via the ERK pathway and is expected to be promising as orthopedic implants and bone repair materials.

Investigation of the inner corrosion layer formed in pulse electrodeposition coating on Mg-Sr alloy and corresponding degradation behavior

Magnesium-based metals are considered as promising biodegradable orthopedic implant materials due to their potentials of enhancing bone healing and reconstruction, and in vivo absorbable characteristic without second operation for removal. However, the rapid corrosion has limited their clinical applications. Ca-P coating by electrodeposition has been supposed to be effective to control the degradation rate and enhance the bioactivity. In this work, a brushite coating was fabricated on the Mg-Sr alloy by pulse electrodeposition (PED) to evaluate its efficacy for orthopedic application. Interestingly, an inner corrosion layer was observed between the PED coating and the alloy substrate. Meanwhile the results of in vitro immersion and electrochemical tests showed that the corrosion resistance of the coated alloy was undermined in comparison with the uncoated alloy. It was deduced that the existence of this corrosion layer was attributed to the worse corrosion performance of the alloy. The mechanism on formation of the inner corrosion layer and its influence on consequent degradation were analyzed. It can be concluded that the electrodeposition coating should be not suitable for those magnesium alloys with poor corrosion resistance such as the Mg-Sr alloy. More importantly, it should be noted that the process of coating formation combined with the nature of substrate alloy is important to evaluate the efficacy of coating for biodegradable Mg-based implants application.

Comparison study of different coatings on degradation performance and cell response of Mg-Sr alloy

To solve the problem of rapid degradation for magnesium-based implants, surface modification especially coating method is widely studied and showed the great potential for clinical application. However, as concerned to the further application and medical translation for biodegradable magnesium alloys, there are still lack of data and comparisons among different coatings on their degradation and biological properties. This work studied three commonly used coatings on Mg-Sr alloy, including micro-arc oxidation coating, electrodeposition coating and chemical conversion coating, and compared these coatings for requirements of favorable degradation and biological performances, how each of these coating systems has performed. Finally the mechanism for the discrepancy between these coatings is proposed. The results indicate that the micro-arc oxidation coating on Mg-Sr alloy exhibited the best corrosion resistance and cell response among these coatings, and is proved to be more suitable for the orthopedic application.

In vitro responses of bone-forming MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts to biodegradable Mg-based bulk metallic glasses

In light of the superior property profile of favorable biocompatibility, proper corrosion/degradation behavior and good mechanical properties, Mg-based bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) are considered as potential biodegradable biomaterials. In the present study, in vitro responses of bone-forming MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts to Mg-Zn-Ca-Sr BMGs were studied in order to assess their feasibility to serve as orthopedic implants. The Mg-Zn-Ca-Sr BMGs were much more capable of supporting cell adhesion and spreading in comparison with crystalline AZ31B Mg alloy. The Mg-Zn-Ca-Sr BMG extracts showed no cytotoxicity to and slightly stimulated the proliferation of pre-osteoblasts. The cells cultured in 100% BMG extracts exhibited lower alkaline phosphatase activity as compared with that in negative control, which could be mainly ascribed to the inhibition of high concentrations of Zn ions on cell differentiation. With decreasing the extract concentration, the inhibitory effect was diminished and the 5% BMG extract exhibited slight stimulation in cell differentiation and mineralization. The high corrosion resistance of BMGs contributed to smaller environmental variations, compared with AZ31B alloy, thus lowering the unfavorable influences on cellular responses. A comparison among the biodegradable Mg-, Ca- and Sr-based BMGs for their biomedical applications is presented.