The perspectives of biomarker-based electrochemical immunosensors, artificial intelligence and the Internet of Medical Things toward COVID-19 diagnosis and management

Engineered two-dimensional nanomaterials based diagnostics integrated with internet of medical things (IoMT) for COVID-19

More than four years have passed since an inimitable coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic hit the globe in 2019 after an uncontrolled transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The occurrence of this highly contagious respiratory infectious disease led to chaos and mortality all over the world. The peak paradigm shift of the researchers was inclined towards the accurate and rapid detection of diseases. Since 2019, there has been a boost in the diagnostics of COVID-19 via numerous conventional diagnostic tools like RT-PCR, ELISA, etc., and advanced biosensing kits like LFIA, etc. For the same reason, the use of nanotechnology and two-dimensional nanomaterials (2DNMs) has aided in the fabrication of efficient diagnostic tools to combat COVID-19. This article discusses the engineering techniques utilized for fabricating chemically active E2DNMs that are exceptionally thin and irregular. The techniques encompass the introduction of heteroatoms, intercalation of ions, and the design of strain and defects. E2DNMs possess unique characteristics, including a substantial surface area and controllable electrical, optical, and bioactive properties. These characteristics enable the development of sophisticated diagnostic platforms for real-time biosensors with exceptional sensitivity in detecting SARS-CoV-2. Integrating the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) with these E2DNMs-based advanced diagnostics has led to the development of portable, real-time, scalable, more accurate, and cost-effective SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic platforms. These diagnostic platforms have the potential to revolutionize SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis by making it faster, easier, and more accessible to people worldwide, thus making them ideal for resource-limited settings. These advanced IoMT diagnostic platforms may help with combating SARS-CoV-2 as well as tracking and predicting the spread of future pandemics, ultimately saving lives and mitigating their impact on global health systems.

Hydroxyapatite-Gold Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode for Selective SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Immunosensor

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), or coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is still spreading worldwide; therefore, the need for rapid and accurate detection methods remains relevant to maintain the spread of this infectious disease. Electrochemical immunosensors are an alternative method for the rapid detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Herein, we report the development of a screen-printed carbon electrode immunosensor using a hydroxyapatite-gold nanocomposite (SPCE/HA-Au) directly spray-coated with the immobilization receptor binding domain (RBD) Spike to increase the conductivity and surface electrode area. The HA-Au composite synthesis was optimized using the Box-Behnken method, and the resulting composite was characterized by UV-vis spectrophotometry, TEM-EDX, and XRD analysis. The specific interaction of RBD Spike with immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies was evaluated by differential pulse voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy methods in a [Fe(CN)6]4-/3- solution redox system. The IgG was detected with a detection limit of 0.0561 pg mL-1, and the immunosensor had selectivity and stability of 103-122% and was stable until week 7 with the influence of storage conditions. Also, the immunosensor was tested using real samples from human serum, where the results were confirmed using the chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA) method and showed satisfactory results. Therefore, the developed electrochemical immunosensor can rapidly and accurately detect SARS-CoV-2 antibodies.

Nano-modified screen-printed electrode-based electrochemical immunosensors for oral cancer biomarker detection in undiluted human serum and saliva samples

This proposed work reports the development of in-house made conductive ink-based screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) for label-free detection of oral cancer biomarkers. Carbon ink synthesis includes graphite powder, gum arabic, and water. The selectivity test of the fabricated SPE involves immobilizing antibodies specific to biomarkers and challenges with redox-active interference, other serum molecules, and non-target biomarkers. Three different biomarkers, cytokeratin-19 fragment (CYFRA 21-1), interleukin 8 (IL-8), and tumor protein p53 (TP-53), act as target entities for the detection of oral cancer in patients' samples (serum, N = 28, and saliva, N = 16) at an early stage. The standard technique enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was employed to estimate the concentration of the biomarkers in serum and saliva samples. SPEs contain amine (-NH2) functional groups involved in covalent bonding with the carboxyl (-COOH) groups of antibody molecules. These immunosensors exhibited remarkably lower detection limits of 829.5 pg mL-1, 0.543 pg mL-1, and 1.165 pg mL-1, and excellent sensitivity of 0.935 μA mL pg-1 cm-1, 0.039 μA mL pg-1 cm-1, and 0.008 μA mL pg-1 cm-1 for CYFRA 21-1, IL-8, and TP-53 biomarkers, respectively. This sensing platform does not require any functionalization for biomolecule immobilization. Thus, it is a cost-effective, disposable, flexible, miniaturized, and sensitive strip to detect oral cancer biomarkers.

Point-of-Care Devices for Viral Detection: COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond

The pandemic of COVID-19 and its widespread transmission have made us realize the importance of early, quick diagnostic tests for facilitating effective cure and management. The primary obstacles encountered were accurately distinguishing COVID-19 from other illnesses including the flu, common cold, etc. While the polymerase chain reaction technique is a robust technique for the determination of SARS-CoV-2 in patients of COVID-19, there arises a high demand for affordable, quick, user-friendly, and precise point-of-care (POC) diagnostic in therapeutic settings. The necessity for available tests with rapid outcomes spurred the advancement of POC tests that are characterized by speed, automation, and high precision and accuracy. Paper-based POC devices have gained increasing interest in recent years because of rapid, low-cost detection without requiring external instruments. At present, microfluidic paper-based analysis devices have garnered public attention and accelerated the development of such POCT for efficient multistep assays. In the current review, our focus will be on the fabrication of detection modules for SARS-CoV-2. Here, we have included a discussion on various strategies for the detection of viral moieties. The compilation of these strategies would offer comprehensive insight into the detection of the causative agent preparedness for future pandemics. We also provide a descriptive outline for paper-based diagnostic platforms, involving the determination mechanisms, as well as a commercial kit for COVID-19 as well as their outlook.

Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review

Immunosensors are a special class of biosensors that employ specific antibodies for biorecognition of the target analyte. Immunosensors that target disease biomarkers may be exploited as tools for disease diagnosis and/or follow-up, offering several advantages over conventional analytical techniques, such as rapid and easy analysis of patients' samples at the point-of-care. Autoimmune diseases have been increasingly prevalent worldwide in recent years, while the COVID-19 pandemic has also been associated with autoimmunity. Consequently, demand for tools enabling the early and reliable diagnosis of autoimmune diseases is expected to increase in the near future. To this end, interest in immunosensors targeting autoimmune disease biomarkers, mainly, various autoantibodies and specific pro-inflammatory proteins (e.g., specific cytokines), has been rekindled. This review article presents most of the immunosensors proposed to date as potential tools for the diagnosis of various autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. The signal transduction and the immunoassay principles of each immunosensor have been suitably classified and are briefly presented along with certain sensor elements, e.g., special nano-sized materials used in the construction of the immunosensing surface. The main concluding remarks are presented and future perspectives of the field are also briefly discussed.

The Applications of Electrochemical Immunosensors in the Detection of Disease Biomarkers: A Review

Disease-related biomarkers may serve as indicators of human disease. The clinical diagnosis of diseases may largely benefit from timely and accurate detection of biomarkers, which has been the subject of extensive investigations. Due to the specificity of antibody and antigen recognition, electrochemical immunosensors can accurately detect multiple disease biomarkers, including proteins, antigens, and enzymes. This review deals with the fundamentals and types of electrochemical immunosensors. The electrochemical immunosensors are developed using three different catalysts: redox couples, typical biological enzymes, and nanomimetic enzymes. This review also focuses on the applications of those immunosensors in the detection of cancer, Alzheimer's disease, novel coronavirus pneumonia and other diseases. Finally, the future trends in electrochemical immunosensors are addressed in terms of achieving lower detection limits, improving electrode modification capabilities and developing composite functional materials.

Impact of nanotechnology on conventional and artificial intelligence-based biosensing strategies for the detection of viruses

Recent years have witnessed the emergence of several viruses and other pathogens. Some of these infectious diseases have spread globally, resulting in pandemics. Although biosensors of various types have been utilized for virus detection, their limited sensitivity remains an issue. Therefore, the development of better diagnostic tools that facilitate the more efficient detection of viruses and other pathogens has become important. Nanotechnology has been recognized as a powerful tool for the detection of viruses, and it is expected to change the landscape of virus detection and analysis. Recently, nanomaterials have gained enormous attention for their value in improving biosensor performance owing to their high surface-to-volume ratio and quantum size effects. This article reviews the impact of nanotechnology on the design, development, and performance of sensors for the detection of viruses. Special attention has been paid to nanoscale materials, various types of nanobiosensors, the internet of medical things, and artificial intelligence-based viral diagnostic techniques.

A Comprehensive Overview of Sensors Applications for the Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 and of Drugs Used in its Treatment

During the COVID-19 process, determination-based analytical chemistry studies have had a major place at every stage. Many analytical techniques have been used in both diagnostic studies and drug analysis. Among these, electrochemical sensors are frequently preferred due to their high sensitivity, selectivity, short analysis time, reliability, ease of sample preparation, and low use of organic solvents. For the determination of drugs used in the SARS-CoV-2, such as favipiravir, molnupiravir, ribavirin, etc., electrochemical (nano)sensors are widely used in both pharmaceutical and biological samples. Diagnosis is the most critical step in the management of the disease, and electrochemical sensor tools are widely preferred for this purpose. Diagnostic electrochemical sensor tools can be biosensor-, nano biosensor-, or MIP-based sensors and utilize a wide variety of analytes such as viral proteins, viral RNA, antibodies, etc. This review overviews the sensor applications in SARS-CoV-2 in terms of diagnosis and determination of drugs by evaluating the most recent studies in the literature. In this way, it is aimed to compile the developments so far by shedding light on the most recent studies and giving ideas to researchers for future studies.

Challenges and Prospective of AI and 5G-Enabled Technologies in Emerging Applications during the Pandemic

5G is being implemented in the Internet of things (IoT) era. This book chapter focuses on 5G technology and the integration of other digital technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, IoT, big data analytics, cloud computing, robotics, and other digital platforms into new healthcare applications. Now, the healthcare industry is implementing 5G-enabled technology to improve health services, medical research, quality of life, and medical professionals’ and patients’ experiences everywhere, at any time. Technology can facilitate faster medical research progress and better clinical and social services management. Furthermore, AI approaches with 5G connectivity may be able to combat the epidemic challenges with minimal resources. This book chapter underlines how 5G technology is growing to address epidemic concerns. The study highlights many technical issues and future developments for creating 5G-powered healthcare solutions. This chapter also addresses the key challenges AI and 5G technology face in emerging healthcare solutions. In addition, this book chapter highlights perspective, policy recommendations, and future research directions of AI and 5G-enabled technologies in confronting future pandemics. More research will be incorporated into future projects, including studies on developing a digital society based on 5G technology in healthcare emergencies.

National IoMT platform strategy portfolio decision model under the COVID-19 environment: based on the financial and non-financial value view

The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) is an emerging technology in the healthcare revolution which provides real-time healthcare information communication and reasonable medical resource allocation. The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant effect on people's lives and has affected healthcare capacities. It is important for integrated IoMT platform development to overcome the global pandemic challenges. This study proposed the national IoMT platform strategy portfolio decision-making model from the non-financial (technology, organization, environment) and financial perspectives. As a solution to the decision problem, initially, the decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) technology were employed to capture the cause-effect relationship based on the perspectives and criteria obtained from the insight of an expert team. The analytic network process (ANP) and pairwise comparisons were then used to determine the weights for the strategy. Simultaneously, this study incorporated IoMT platform resource limitations into the zero-one goal programming (ZOGP) method to obtain an optimal portfolio selection for IoMT platform strategy planning. The results showed that the integrated MCDM method produced reasonable results for selecting the most appropriate IoMT platform strategy portfolio when considering resource constraints such as system installation costs, consultant fees, infrastructure costs, reduction of medical staff demand, and improvement rates for diagnosis efficiency. The decision-making model of the IoMT platform in this study was conclusive and significantly compelling to aid government decision makers in concentrating their efforts on planning IoMT strategies in response to various pandemic and medical resource allocations.

A review post-vaccination SARS-CoV-2 serological test: Method and antibody titer response

The development of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine is one of the most important efforts in controlling the pandemic. Serological tests are used to identify highly reactive human donors for convalescent plasma therapy, measuring vaccine efficacy and durability. This review article presents a review of serology tests and how antibody titers in response to vaccines have been developed. Some of the serological test methods discussed are Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test (PRNT), Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA), chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA), and Chemiluminescent Micro-particle Immunoassay (CMIA). This review can provide an understanding of the application of the body's immune response to vaccines to get some new strategies for vaccines.

Platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs)-based CRISPR/Cas12a platform for detection of nucleic acid and protein in clinical samples

Early rapid screening diagnostic assay is essential for the identification, prevention, and evaluation of many contagious or refractory diseases. The optical density transducer created by platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) (OD-CRISPR) is reported in the present research as a cheap and easy-to-execute CRISPR/Cas12a-based diagnostic platform. The OD-CRISPR uses PtNPs, with ultra-high peroxidase-mimicking activity, to increase the detection sensitivity, thereby enabling the reduction of detection time and cost. The OD-CRISPR can be utilized to identify nucleic acid or protein biomarkers within an incubation time of 30-40min in clinical specimens. In the case of taking severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) N gene as an instance, when compared to a quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), the OD-CRISPR test attains a sensitivity of 79.17% and a specificity of 100%. In terms of detecting prostate-specific antigen (PSA), aptamer-based OD-CRISPR assay achieves the least discoverable concentration of 0.01 ng mL^-1. In general, the OD-CRISPR can detect nucleic acid and protein biomarkers, and is a potential strategy for early rapid screening diagnostic tools.

Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Nanodiagnostics for Human and Gut Metabolites Diagnostics: Recent Advances and Challenges

Metabolites are the intermediatory products of metabolic processes catalyzed by numerous enzymes found inside the cells. Detecting clinically relevant metabolites is important to understand their physiological and biological functions along with the evolving medical diagnostics. Rapid advances in detecting the tiny metabolites such as biomarkers that signify disease hallmarks have an immense need for high-performance identifying techniques. Low concentrations are found in biological fluids because the metabolites are difficult to dissolve in an aqueous medium. Therefore, the selective and sensitive study of metabolites as biomarkers in biological fluids is problematic. The different non-electrochemical and conventional methods need a long time of analysis, long sampling, high maintenance costs, and costly instrumentation. Hence, employing electrochemical techniques in clinical examination could efficiently meet the requirements of fully automated, inexpensive, specific, and quick means of biomarker detection. The electrochemical methods are broadly utilized in several emerging and established technologies, and electrochemical biosensors are employed to detect different metabolites. This review describes the advancement in electrochemical sensors developed for clinically associated human metabolites, including glucose, lactose, uric acid, urea, cholesterol, etc., and gut metabolites such as TMAO, TMA, and indole derivatives. Different sensing techniques are evaluated for their potential to achieve relevant degrees of multiplexing, specificity, and sensitivity limits. Moreover, we have also focused on the opportunities and remaining challenges for integrating the electrochemical sensor into the point-of-care (POC) devices.

Determination of rSpike Protein by Specific Antibodies with Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode Modified by Electrodeposited Gold Nanostructures

In this research, we assessed the applicability of electrochemical sensing techniques for detecting specific antibodies against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike proteins in the blood serum of patient samples following coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Herein, screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) with electrodeposited gold nanostructures (AuNS) were modified with L-Cysteine for further covalent immobilization of recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins (rSpike). The affinity interactions of the rSpike protein with specific antibodies against this protein (anti-rSpike) were assessed using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) methods. It was revealed that the SPCE electroactive surface area increased from 1.49 ± 0.02 cm² to 1.82 ± 0.01 cm² when AuNS were electrodeposited, and the value of the heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant (k⁰) changed from 6.30 × 10^-5 to 14.56 × 10^-5. The performance of the developed electrochemical immunosensor was evaluated by calculating the limit of detection and limit of quantification, giving values of 0.27 nM and 0.81 nM for CV and 0.14 nM and 0.42 nM for DPV. Furthermore, a specificity test was performed with a solution of antibodies against bovine serum albumin as the control aliquot, which was used to assess nonspecific binding, and this evaluation revealed that the developed rSpike-based sensor exhibits low nonspecific binding towards anti-rSpike antibodies.

Recent Advances in Understanding SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Updates on Potential Diagnostic and Therapeutics for COVID-19

Abstract:

A more focused approach is needed to understand the SARS-CoV-2 virulence, structure, and genomics to devise more effective diagnostic and treatment interventions as this virus can evade the immune attack and causes life-threatening complications such as cytokine storm. The spread of the virus is still amplifying and causing thousands of new cases worldwide. It is essential to review current diagnostics and treatment approaches to pave the way to correct or modify our current practices to make more effective interventions against COVID-19. COVID-19 vaccine development has moved at a breakneck pace since the outbreak began, utilizing practically all possible platforms or tactics to ensure the success of vaccines. A total of 42 vaccine candidates have already entered clinical trials, including promising results from numerous vaccine candidates in phase 1 or phase 2 trials. Further, many existing drugs are being explored on broad-spectrum antiviral medications for their use in clinical recovery against COVID- 19. The present review attempts to re-examine the SARS-CoV-2 structure, its viral life cycle, clinical symptoms and pathogenesis, mode of transmission, diagnostics, and treatment strategies that may be useful for resorting to more effective approaches for controlling COVID-19. Various antiviral drugs and vaccination strategies with their strengths and weaknesses are also discussed in the paper to augment our understanding of COVID-19 management.

A Review on Potential Electrochemical Point-of-Care Tests Targeting Pandemic Infectious Disease Detection: COVID-19 as a Reference

Fast and accurate point-of-care testing (POCT) of infectious diseases is crucial for diminishing the pandemic miseries. To fight the pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), numerous interesting electrochemical point-of-care (POC) tests have been evolved to rapidly identify the causal organism SARS-CoV-2 virus, its nucleic acid and antigens, and antibodies of the patients. Many of those electrochemical biosensors are impressive in terms of miniaturization, mass production, ease of use, and speed of test, and they could be recommended for future applications in pandemic-like circumstances. On the other hand, self-diagnosis, sensitivity, specificity, surface chemistry, electrochemical components, device configuration, portability, small analyzers, and other features of the tests can yet be improved. Therefore, this report reviews the developmental trend of electrochemical POC tests (i.e., test platforms and features) reported for the rapid diagnosis of COVID-19 and correlates any significant advancements with relevant references. POCTs incorporating microfluidic/plastic chips, paper devices, nanomaterial-aided platforms, smartphone integration, self-diagnosis, and epidemiological reporting attributes are also surfed to help with future pandemic preparedness. This review especially screens the low-cost and easily affordable setups so that management of pandemic disease becomes faster and easier. Overall, the review is a wide-ranging package for finding appropriate strategies of electrochemical POCT targeting pandemic infectious disease detection.

Insights in paediatric virology during the COVID-19 era (Review)

The present article provides an overview of the key messages of the topics discussed at the '7th Workshop on Paediatric Virology', which was organised virtually on December 20, 2021 by the Institute of Paediatric Virology, located on the Island of Euboea in Greece. The workshop's plenary lectures were on: i) viral pandemics and epidemics in the ancient Mediterranean; ii) the impact of obesity on the outcome of viral infections in children and adolescents; and iii) COVID-19 and artificial intelligence. Despite the scarcity of evidence from fossils and remnants, viruses have been recognised as significant causes of several epidemics in the ancient Mediterranean. Paediatric obesity, a modifiable critical health risk factor, has been shown to impact on the development, progression and severity of viral infections. Thus, the prevention of paediatric obesity should be included in formulating public health policies and decision-making strategies against emerging global viral threats. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, artificial intelligence has been used to facilitate the identification, monitoring and prevention of SARS-CoV-2. In the future, it will play a fundamental role in the surveillance of epidemic-prone infectious diseases, in the repurposing of older therapies and in the design of novel therapeutic agents against viral infections. The collaboration between different medical specialties and other diverse scientific fields, including archaeology, history, epidemiology, nutritional technologies, mathematics, computer technology, engineering, medical law and ethics is essential for the successful management of paediatric viral infections. The current COVID-19 pandemic has underscored this need, which should be further encouraged in modern medical education.

Factors associated with cycle threshold values (Ct-values) of SARS-CoV2-rRT-PCR

BACKGROUND

Presented work studies the association of COVID-19 severity, patient demographics, and clinical history with cycle threshold (Ct) values of SARS CoV2-rRT-PCR. We studied the Ct values for Orf1ab, N, and RdRp genes in association with all the factors mentioned above.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We examined the individuals (n = 6331) that consulted two private diagnostic centers for COVID-19 testing. SARS-CoV-2 was detected by RT-PCR assays using different commercial kits. Clinical and demographic information was collected by the attending health care professional. Ct values were not associated with the age, sex, or clinical history of the patient. Orf1ab and N genes Ct values were only weakly associated with symptoms at the time of the SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR test. Also, the distributions of Ct values in SARS-CoV-2 positive patients are very similar irrespective of symptomatology.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that the Ct values may have limitations in reliably predicting COVID-19 severity and should be used or reported with caution.

Microfluidic Point-of-Care (POC) Devices in Early Diagnosis: A Review of Opportunities and Challenges

The early diagnosis of infectious diseases is critical because it can greatly increase recovery rates and prevent the spread of diseases such as COVID-19; however, in many areas with insufficient medical facilities, the timely detection of diseases is challenging. Conventional medical testing methods require specialized laboratory equipment and well-trained operators, limiting the applicability of these tests. Microfluidic point-of-care (POC) equipment can rapidly detect diseases at low cost. This technology could be used to detect diseases in underdeveloped areas to reduce the effects of disease and improve quality of life in these areas. This review details microfluidic POC equipment and its applications. First, the concept of microfluidic POC devices is discussed. We then describe applications of microfluidic POC devices for infectious diseases, cardiovascular diseases, tumors (cancer), and chronic diseases, and discuss the future incorporation of microfluidic POC devices into applications such as wearable devices and telemedicine. Finally, the review concludes by analyzing the present state of the microfluidic field, and suggestions are made. This review is intended to call attention to the status of disease treatment in underdeveloped areas and to encourage the researchers of microfluidics to develop standards for these devices.

The role of electrochemical biosensors in SARS-CoV-2 detection: a bibliometrics-based analysis and review

The global pandemic of COVID-19, which began in late 2019, has resulted in extremely high morbidity and severe mortality worldwide, with important implications for human health, international trade, and national politics. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is the primary pathogen causing COVID-19. Analytical chemistry played an important role in this global epidemic event, and detection of SARS-CoV-2 even became a part of daily life. Analytical chemists have devoted much effort and enthusiasm to this event, and different analytical techniques have shown very rapid development. Electrochemical biosensors are highly efficient, sensitive, and cost-effective and have been used to detect many highly pathogenic viruses long before this event. However, another fact is that electrochemical biosensors are not the technology of choice for most detection applications. This review describes for the first time the role played by electrochemical biosensors in SARS-CoV-2 detection from a bibliometric perspective. This paper analyzed 254 relevant research papers up to June 2022. The contributions of different countries and institutions to this topic were analyzed. Keyword analysis was used to explore different methodological attempts of electrochemical detection techniques. More importantly, we are trying to find an answer to the question: do electrochemical biosensors have the potential to become a genuinely employable detection technology in an outbreak of infectious disease?

This review describes for the first time the role played by electrochemical biosensors in SARS-CoV-2 detection from a bibliometric perspective.

Current state of diagnostic, screening and surveillance testing methods for COVID-19 from an analytical chemistry point of view

Since December 2019, we have been in the battlefield with a new threat to the humanity known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In this review, we describe the four main methods used for diagnosis, screening and/or surveillance of SARS-CoV-2: Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR); chest computed tomography (CT); and different complementary alternatives developed in order to obtain rapid results, antigen and antibody detection. All of them compare the highlighting advantages and disadvantages from an analytical point of view. The gold standard method in terms of sensitivity and specificity is the RT-PCR. The different modifications propose to make it more rapid and applicable at point of care (POC) are also presented and discussed. CT images are limited to central hospitals. However, being combined with RT-PCR is the most robust and accurate way to confirm COVID-19 infection. Antibody tests, although unable to provide reliable results on the status of the infection, are suitable for carrying out maximum screening of the population in order to know the immune capacity. More recently, antigen tests, less sensitive than RT-PCR, have been authorized to determine in a quicker way whether the patient is infected at the time of analysis and without the need of specific instruments.