SERS detection of thrombin by protein recognition using functionalized gold nanoparticles

Investigation of Melphalan interaction as an alkylating agent with nucleotides by using surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)

SERS (Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy) is a new Raman spectroscopy which relies on Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) of metal nanoparticles. We have applied colloidal silver and gold nanoparticles as amplifier agents to enhance nucleotide Raman signals. It is observed that without these enhancing agents, it is impossible to investigate nucleotide spectrum due to weak Raman signals. Interaction mechanism of Melphalan, an anticancer drug with four nucleotides (Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine) was investigated using SERS to detect and identify changes due to alkylating process in Raman spectra. After incubating Melphalan drug with nucleotides for 24 h at 37 °C, some changes occurred in SERS spectrum and interpretation of SERS spectra revealed the influence of the alkyl substitution on peaks and Raman shifts. After incubation of Melphalan with each nucleotide, intensity of relevant SERS signals assigned to Amid III group of Cytosine and Amid I of Thymine decreased significantly, confirming alkylating taking place. In this study, we also investigated the effect of nanoparticles type on nucleotide spectrum. We could not obtain useful information in the cases of guanine nucleotide. The SERS spectrum of Cytosine as an example of nucleotides in aqueous solution compared to solid state and results demonstrated that in solid state better signals were obtained than in liquid state.

Quantitative determination of carbosulfan residues by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

Carbosulfan gets easily decomposed into carbofuran and 3-Hydroxy carbofuran in vegetables and forms harmful residues. To detect the residues of carbosulfan in vegetables (for example, cowpeas), a super-sensitive method of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) was used in this work. Silver sol was prepared as the SERS substrate. To solve the adsorption problem of carbosulfan on Ag nanoparticles, 2, 6-dichloroquinone-4-chlorimide (chromogenic agent), and sodium hydroxide were added in carbosulfan to generate a complex, which was then mixed with the silver sol in the best proportion to examine SERS spectra. According to density functional theory calculations, the spectral peak positions of carbosulfan were determined. The optimal mixing ratio of the complex and the silver sol to obtain the optimal SERS spectrum and the detection limit of carbosulfan were investigated. The ultra-sensitive detection of carbosulfan residues (8.7 × 10^-11 g/L) in cowpeas was realized. The results of this work indicate that SERS is a promising technique for detecting single-molecule pesticide residues in vegetables.

Brush-like gold nanowires-anchored g-C3N4 nanosheets with tunable geometry for ultrasensitive and regenerative SERS detection of gaseous molecules

Strapping plasmonic substrate with a reliable ability to anchor molecules and achieve reproducible result provides trustworthy opportunities for flourishing surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) technique. Herein, a facile controllable in-situ anisotropic growth strategy was exploited to anchor gold nanowires (Au NWs) onto two-dimensional g-C₃N₄ nanosheets (g-C₃N₄/Au NWs), facilitating a sensitive and recyclable SERS sensor for gaseous analytes. Benefiting from the attractive enrichment effect of the brush-like surface formed by numerous small Au NWs as well as their rich nanotips-mediated enhancement capability, the hybrid substrate showed an outstanding performance in SERS-based detection of trace 4-Aminothiophenol (4-ATP) molecules, demonstrating a monitoring limitation down to 10^-8 M even in atmosphere. Satisfyingly, under visible light illumination, the efficient green photocatalytic ability derived from the g-C₃N₄ supporting matrix rendered reusable capability for the substrate, whose SERS signal was kept at a persistent high level throughout 6 cycles. Attributed to the narrow line width of SERS spectrum, the 4-ATP assay under the interference of 2-naphthalenethiol (2-NAT) was acquired in gas phase and the dependable recovery rates from 85.4 to 93.9% were confirmed as well. Thanks to the intriguing features including excellent sensitivity and recyclability, the g-C₃N₄/Au NWs substrate proposed here will pave the way toward the potential application of SERS technique in multiplexed gaseous detection.

Nanomedicine in the Face of Parkinson's Disease: From Drug Delivery Systems to Nanozymes

The complexity and overall burden of Parkinson's disease (PD) require new pharmacological approaches to counteract the symptomatology while reducing the progressive neurodegeneration of affected dopaminergic neurons. Since the pathophysiological signature of PD is characterized by the loss of physiological levels of dopamine (DA) and the misfolding and aggregation of the alpha-synuclein (α-syn) protein, new proposals seek to restore the lost DA and inhibit the progressive damage derived from pathological α-syn and its impact in terms of oxidative stress. In this line, nanomedicine (the medical application of nanotechnology) has achieved significant advances in the development of nanocarriers capable of transporting and delivering basal state DA in a controlled manner in the tissues of interest, as well as highly selective catalytic nanostructures with enzyme-like properties for the elimination of reactive oxygen species (responsible for oxidative stress) and the proteolysis of misfolded proteins. Although some of these proposals remain in their early stages, the deepening of our knowledge concerning the pathological processes of PD and the advances in nanomedicine could endow for the development of potential treatments for this still incurable condition. Therefore, in this paper, we offer: (i) a brief summary of the most recent findings concerning the physiology of motor regulation and (ii) the molecular neuropathological processes associated with PD, together with (iii) a recapitulation of the current progress in controlled DA release by nanocarriers and (iv) the design of nanozymes, catalytic nanostructures with oxidoreductase-, chaperon, and protease-like properties. Finally, we conclude by describing the prospects and knowledge gaps to overcome and consider as research into nanotherapies for PD continues, especially when clinical translations take place.

Long Spiky Au-Ag Nanostar Based Fiber Probe for Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

The detection performances of noble metal-based surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) devices are determined by the compositions and geometries of the metal nanostructures, as well as the substrates. In the current study, long spiky Au-Ag alloy nanostars were synthesized, and both core diameters and spike lengths were controlled by Lauryl sulfobetaine concentrations (as the nanostructure growth skeleton). The long spiky star geometries were confirmed by transmission electron micrograph images. Elements energy dispersive spectrometer mapping confirmed that Au and Ag elements were inhomogeneously distributed in the nanostructures and demonstrated a higher Ag content at surface for potential better SERS performance. Selected synthesized spiky nanostars were uniformly assembled on multi-mode silica fiber for probe fabrication by silanization. The SERS performance were characterized using crystal violet (CV) and rhodamine 6G (R6G) as analyte molecules. The lowest detection limit could reach as low as 10^-8 M, with a 6.23 × 10⁶ enhancement factor, and the relationship between analyte concentrations and Raman intensities was linear for both CV and R6G, which indicated the potential qualitative and quantitative molecule detection applications. Moreover, the fiber probes also showed good reproducibility and stability in the ambient atmosphere.

Label-Free Physical Techniques and Methodologies for Proteins Detection in Microfluidic Biosensor Structures

Proteins in biological fluids (blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid) are important biomarkers of various pathological conditions. Protein biomarkers detection and quantification have been proven to be an indispensable diagnostic tool in clinical practice. There is a growing tendency towards using portable diagnostic biosensor devices for point-of-care (POC) analysis based on microfluidic technology as an alternative to conventional laboratory protein assays. In contrast to universally accepted analytical methods involving protein labeling, label-free approaches often allow the development of biosensors with minimal requirements for sample preparation by omitting expensive labelling reagents. The aim of the present work is to review the variety of physical label-free techniques of protein detection and characterization which are suitable for application in micro-fluidic structures and analyze the technological and material aspects of label-free biosensors that implement these methods. The most widely used optical and impedance spectroscopy techniques: absorption, fluorescence, surface plasmon resonance, Raman scattering, and interferometry, as well as new trends in photonics are reviewed. The challenges of materials selection, surfaces tailoring in microfluidic structures, and enhancement of the sensitivity and miniaturization of biosensor systems are discussed. The review provides an overview for current advances and future trends in microfluidics integrated technologies for label-free protein biomarkers detection and discusses existing challenges and a way towards novel solutions.

Toward Cancer Diagnostics of the Tumor Suppressor p53 by Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

The tumor suppressor p53 protein plays a crucial role in many biological processes. The presence of abnormal concentrations of wild-type p53, or some of its mutants, can be indicative of a pathological cancer state. p53 represents therefore a valuable biomarker for tumor screening approaches and development of suitable biosensors for its detection deserves a high interest in early diagnostics. Here, we revisit our experimental approaches, combining Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) and nanotechnological materials, for ultrasensitive detection of wild-type and mutated p53, in the perspective to develop biosensors to be used in clinical diagnostics. The Raman marker is provided by a small molecule (4-ATP) acting as a bridge between gold nanoparticles (NPs) and a protein biomolecule. The Azurin copper protein and specific antibodies of p53 were used as a capture element for p53 (wild-type and its mutants). The developed approaches allowed us to reach a detection level of p53 down to 10^-17 M in both buffer and serum. The implementation of the method in a biosensor device, together with some possible developments are discussed.

Impact of Self-Assembled Monolayer Design and Electrochemical Factors on Impedance-Based Biosensing

Real-time sensing of proteins, especially in wearable devices, remains a substantial challenge due to the need to convert a binding event into a measurable signal that is compatible with the chosen analytical instrumentation. Impedance spectroscopy enables real-time detection via either measuring electrostatic interactions or electron transfer reactions while simultaneously being amenable to miniaturization for integration into wearable form-factors. To create a more robust methodology for optimizing impedance-based sensors, additional fundamental studies exploring components influencing the design and implementation of these sensors are needed. This investigation addresses a sub-set of these issues by combining optical and electrochemical characterization to validate impedance-based sensor performance as a function of (1) biorecognition element density, (2) self-assembled monolayer chain length, (3) self-assembled monolayer charge density, (4) the electrochemical sensing mechanism and (5) the redox reporter selection. Using a pre-existing lysozyme aptamer and lysozyme analyte combination, we demonstrate a number of design criteria to advance the state-of-the-art in protein sensing. For this model system we demonstrated the following: First, denser self-assembled monolayers yielded substantially improved sensing results. Second, self-assembled monolayer composition, including both thickness and charge density, changed the observed peak position and peak current. Third, single frequency measurements, while less informative, can be optimized to replace multi-frequency measurements and in some cases (such as that with zwitterionic self-assembled monolayers) are preferred. Finally, various redox reporters traditionally not used in impedance sensing should be further explored. Collectively, these results can help limit bottlenecks associated with device development, enabling realization of next-generation impedance-based biosensing with customize sensor design for the specific application.

Ultrasensitive detection of thyrotropin-releasing hormone based on azo coupling and surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy

Surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS) has been used to establish a rapid and quantitative assay based on the diazotization coupling reaction for thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). Ultrahigh sensitivity of this approach originates from two factors: changing TRH to an azo compound and the SERRS effect with the addition of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) at 532 nm excitation wavelength. The lowest detectable concentration of TRH was found to be as low as 1 pg mL(-1), which is 10-fold lower than the lowest normal reference value in human serum reported in previous literature. The quantitative measurements in human serum based on this method were conducted, and the results showed its feasibility for detection in complex biological samples. In comparison with conventional TRH identification and quantification methodologies, radioimmunoassay (RIA) and subsequent various hyphenated techniques, the main advantages of this study are simplicity, rapidness (2 minutes), time effectiveness, no additional steps required to further characterize the immunogenic material, highest sensitivity (57.1 fg), high selectivity, practicality and reliability. Thus, this work puts forward a research tool that may be applied to the determination of TRH in practical assays.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering for rapid hematopoietic stem cell differentiation analysis

Raman-spectroscopy-based methods, such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, are a well-evolved method to molecular fingerprint cell types. Here we demonstrate that surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy can enable us to distinguish cell development stages of bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells towards red blood cells through the identification of specific surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy biomarkers. The approach taken here is to allow cells to take in gold nanoparticles as Raman enhancement platforms for kinetic structural observations presented here through the view of the multidimensional parameter contribution, thereby enabling profiling of bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells acquired from proliferation (stage one), differentiation (stage two), and mature red blood cells (stage three).

Aptamer-Based Single-Step Assay by the Fluorescence Enhancement on Electroless Plated Nano Au Substrate

A new single-step aptamer-based surface-enhanced fluorescent optical sensor is built, by combining an aptamer-target interaction for target recognition and a fluorophore interaction for signal enhancement. The developed aptasensor is simple, sensitive, specific and stable for the detection of thrombin. A new nanometallic Au structure in the range of 100 nm was constructed through effective electroless plating method on a Cu thin film. Cu⁺ ions act as sacrificial seeds for the reduction of Au2+/3+ ions to form Au nanolawns. In order to utilize the structure for a fluorescence-based sensor, aptamer conjugated with Cy3 was immobilized on the nanogold substrate through electrostatic attraction. The Au substrate was coated with chitosan (molecular weight 1000 Da). Thrombin binding aptamer (TBA) was applied as a model system demonstrating the aptamer-based fluorescence assay on nanogold substrates. Thrice-enhanced fluorescence emission was achieved with Cy3-conjugated TBA stably immobilized on the chitosan-coated Au substrate. The intensity change was proportional to the concentration of thrombin from 10 μM to 10 pM, whereas the intensity change was ignorable for other proteins such as human serum albumin (HSA). Aptamer-based assay benefited from simple immobilization of receptors and Au nanostructure contributed in building an effective surface enhancing/positively charged substrate was proved. Such an aptasensor holding high utilities for point-of-care devices by incorporating simplicity, sensitivity and selectivity in detection, low-cost for test, small sample volumes has been developed.

Ag Nanorods-Oxide Hybrid Array Substrates: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

Over the last few decades, benefitting from the sufficient sensitivity, high specificity, nondestructive, and rapid detection capability of the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) technique, numerous nanostructures have been elaborately designed and successfully synthesized as high-performance SERS substrates, which have been extensively exploited for the identification of chemical and biological analytes. Among these, Ag nanorods coated with thin metal oxide layers (AgNRs-oxide hybrid array substrates) featuring many outstanding advantages have been proposed as fascinating SERS substrates, and are of particular research interest. The present review provides a systematic overview towards the representative achievements of AgNRs-oxide hybrid array substrates for SERS applications from diverse perspectives, so as to promote the realization of real-world SERS sensors. First, various fabrication approaches of AgNRs-oxide nanostructures are introduced, which are followed by a discussion on the novel merits of AgNRs-oxide arrays, such as superior SERS sensitivity and reproducibility, high thermal stability, long-term activity in air, corrosion resistivity, and intense chemisorption of target molecules. Next, we present recent advances of AgNRs-oxide substrates in terms of practical applications. Intriguingly, the recyclability, qualitative and quantitative analyses, as well as vapor-phase molecule sensing have been achieved on these nanocomposites. We further discuss the major challenges and prospects of AgNRs-oxide substrates for future SERS developments, aiming to expand the versatility of SERS technique.

Facile and Sensitive Detection of Carbofuran Carbamate Pesticide in Rice and Soybean Using Coupling Reaction-based Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

In this research, a sensitive and selective method for detecting one of the most toxic insecticides, "carbofuran", in rice and soybean is presented. This method is based on the coupling reaction of diazonium ion combined with a surface-enhanced Raman scattering technique. Diazonium ion produced from p-aminothiophenol reacts specifically with carbofuran phenol from the hydrolysis of carbofuran. The generated azo compounds attach to the surface of silver nanoparticles via the Ag-S bond. Therefore, a strong Raman intensity can be obtained. The concentration of carbofuran can be determined by following the intensity of the peak at 1201 cm-1, attributed to the C-N stretching vibration of the azo compound. The result shows a good linear correlation (R2 = 0.9786) against carbofuran concentrations (0.1 - 5 ppm) with a detection limit of 0.452 ppm. Our proposed protocol is insignificantly influenced by various common interferences. Moreover, this method has been successfully validated to determine carbofuran concentrations in rice and soybean with detection limits of 0.446 and 0.520 ppm, respectively.

Multi-functional, thiophenol-based surface chemistry for surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

This article highlights the recent advances of thiophenol-based surface chemistry for the applications in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS).

A primary SERS-active interconnected Si-nanocore network for biomolecule detection with plasmonic nanosatellites as a secondary boosting mechanism

We report in this study, the development of a polymorphic biosensitive Si nanocore superstructure as a SERS biosensing platform.

Folate-based single cell screening using surface enhanced Raman microimaging

Recent progress in nanotechnology and its application to biomedical settings have generated great advantages in dealing with early cancer diagnosis. The identification of the specific properties of cancer cells, such as the expression of particular plasma membrane molecular receptors, has become crucial in revealing the presence and in assessing the stage of development of the disease. Here we report a single cell screening approach based on Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) microimaging. We fabricated a SERS-labelled nanovector based on the biofunctionalization of gold nanoparticles with folic acid. After treating the cells with the nanovector, we were able to distinguish three different cell populations from different cell lines (cancer HeLa and PC-3, and normal HaCaT lines), suitably chosen for their different expressions of folate binding proteins. The nanovector, indeed, binds much more efficiently on cancer cell lines than on normal ones, resulting in a higher SERS signal measured on cancer cells. These results pave the way for applications in single cell diagnostics and, potentially, in theranostics.

Development of a Loop Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) - Surface Enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) Assay for the Detection of Salmonella Enterica Serotype Enteritidis

As a major foodborne pathogen, Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis is increasingly rising as a global health concern. Here, we developed an integrated assay that combines loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for DNA detection of S. Enteritidis using specifically designed Raman active Au-nanoprobes. The target DNA was amplified by LAMP and then labeled with Au-nanoprobes comprised of gold nanoparticle-modified with specific cy5/DNA probes to allow the detection by SERS. The sensitivity of the developed LAMP-SERS detection assay (66 CFU/mL) was ~100-fold higher than the conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Significantly, this technique allowed highly specific detection of the target DNA of S. Enteritidis and could differentiate it from the DNA of closely related bacterial species or non-specific contamination, making it more accurate and reliable than the standard LAMP technique. The applicability of detection of S. Enteritidis in milk samples using LAMP-SERS assay was validated as well. In sum, the developed LAMP-SERS assay is highly specific and sensitive, and has the potential to be applied for rapid detection of different foodborne pathogens and other microbial contaminants.

Surface enhanced Raman scattering of new acridine based fluorophore adsorbed on silver electrode

4,5-Bis(N,N-di(2-hydroxyethyl)iminomethyl)acridine (BHIA) is a new acridine based fluoroionophore and a highly-selective sensor for cadmium ion. The direct interaction of the aromatic nitrogen atom with a surface is impossible since there are bulky substituents in the 4,5-positions of the acridine fragment. Nevertheless BHIA molecule shows a reliable SERS spectrum while adsorbed on a silver electrode. The analysis of SERS spectra pH dependence reveals that BHIA species adsorbed on a surface can exist in both non-protonated and protonated forms. The adsorption of BHIA from alkaline solution is accompanied by carbonaceous species formation at the surface. The intensity of such "carbon bands" turned out to be related with the supporting electrolyte (KCl) concentration. Upon lowering the electrode potential the SERS spectra of BHIA do not undergo changes but the intensity of bands decreases. This indicates that the adsorption mechanism on the silver surface is realized via aromatic system of acridine fragment. In case of such an adsorption mechanism the chelate fragment of the BHIA molecule is capable of interaction with the solution components. Addition of Cd(2+) ions to a system containing BHIA adsorbed on a silver electrode in equilibrium with the solution leads to the formation of BHIA/Cd(2+) complex which desorption causes the loss of SERS signal.

A Self-Referencing Detection of Microorganisms Using Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering Nanoprobes in a Test-in-a-Tube Platform

Anisotropic nanoparticles (i.e., silver nanocubes) were functionalized with target-specific antibodies and Raman active tags to serve as nanoprobes for the rapid detection of bacteria in a test-in-a-tube platform. A self-referencing scheme was developed and implemented in which surface enhanced Raman spectroscopic (SERS) signatures of the targets were observed superimposed with the SERS signals of the Raman tags. The assessment through the dual signals (superimposed target and tag Raman signatures) supported a specific recognition of the targets in a single step with no washing/separation needed to a sensitivity of 102 CFU/mL, even in the presence of non-target bacteria at a 10 times higher concentration. The self-referencing protocol implemented with a portable Raman spectrometer potentially can become an easy-to-use, field-deployable spectroscopic sensor for onsite detection of pathogenic microorganisms.

Highly sensitive detection of thrombin using SERS-based magnetic aptasensors

This paper reports a method of highly sensitive detection of thrombin using a surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based magnetic aptasensor. Magnetic beads and gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) were used as supporting substrates and sensing probes, respectively. For this purpose, 15-mer thrombin-binding aptamers (TBA15) were immobilized onto the surface of magnetic beads, and then thrombin antigens and 29-mer thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA29)-conjugated Au NPs were sequentially added for the formation of sandwich aptamer complexes. Quantitative analysis was performed by monitoring the intensity variation of a characteristic SERS signal of Raman reporter molecules. Because all of the reactions occur in solution, this SERS-based immunoassay technique can solve the diffusion-limited kinetic problems on a solid substrate. The limit of detection (LOD) of thrombin, determined by the SERS-based aptasensor, was estimated to be 0.27pM. The proposed method is expected to be a good clinical tool for the diagnosis of a thrombotic disease.

Applications of Self-Assembled Monolayers in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

The increasing applications of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has led to the development of various SERS-active platforms (SERS substrates) for SERS measurement. This work reviews the current optimization techniques available for improving the performance of some of these SERS substrates. The work particularly identifies self-assembled-monolayer- (SAM-) based substrate modification for optimum SERS activity and wider applications. An overview of SERS, SAM, and studies involving SAM-modified substrates is highlighted. The focus of the paper then shifts to the use of SAMs to improve analytical applications of SERS substrates by addressing issues including long-term stability, selectivity, reproducibility, and functionalization, and so forth. The paper elaborates on the use of SAMs to achieve optimum SERS enhancement. Specific examples are based on novel multilayered SERS substrates developed in the author’s laboratory where SAMs have been demonstrated as excellent dielectric spacers for improving SERS enhancement more than 20-fold relative to conventional single layer SERS substrates. Such substrate optimization can significantly improve the sensitivity of the SERS method for analyte detection.

SERS-based nanobiosensing for ultrasensitive detection of the p53 tumor suppressor

BACKGROUND

One of the main challenges in biomedicine is improvement of detection sensitivity to achieve tumor marker recognition at a very low concentration when the disease is not significantly advanced. A pivotal role in cancer defense is played by the p53 tumor suppressor, therefore its detection with high sensitivity may contribute considerably to early diagnosis of cancer. In this work, we present a new analytical method based on surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy which could significantly increase the sensitivity of traditional bioaffinity techniques. p53 molecules were anchored to gold nanoparticles by means of the bifunctional linker 4-aminothiophenol (4-ATP). The characteristic vibrational bands of the p53-4-ATP nanoparticle system were then used to identify the p53 molecules when they were captured by a recognition substrate comprising a monolayer of azurin in molecules possessing significant affinity for this tumor suppressor. The Raman signal enhancement achieved by 4-ATP-mediated crosslinking of p53 to 50 nm gold nanoparticles enabled detect of this protein at a concentration down to 5 × 10⁻¹³ M.

Localized surface plasmon resonance: nanostructures, bioassays and biosensing--a review

Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is an optical phenomena generated by light when it interacts with conductive nanoparticles (NPs) that are smaller than the incident wavelength. As in surface plasmon resonance, the electric field of incident light can be deposited to collectively excite electrons of a conduction band, with the result being coherent localized plasmon oscillations with a resonant frequency that strongly depends on the composition, size, geometry, dielectric environment and separation distance of NPs. This review serves to describe the physical theory of LSPR formation at the surface of nanostructures, and the potential for this optical technology to serve as a basis for the development bioassays and biosensing of high sensitivity. The benefits and challenges associated with various experimental designs of nanoparticles and detection systems, as well as creative approaches that have been developed to improve sensitivity and limits of detection are highlighted using examples from the literature.

Gold nanoparticle-based surface-enhanced Raman scattering for noninvasive molecular probing of embryonic stem cell differentiation

This study reports the use of gold nanoparticle-based surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) for probing the differentiation of mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells, including undifferentiated single cells, embryoid bodies (EBs), and terminally differentiated cardiomyocytes. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) were successfully delivered into all 3 mES cell differentiation stages without affecting cell viability or proliferation. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the localization of GNPs inside the following cell organelles: mitochondria, secondary lysosome, and endoplasmic reticulum. Using bright- and dark-field imaging, the bright scattering of GNPs and nanoaggregates in all 3 ES cell differentiation stages could be visualized. EB (an early differentiation stage) and terminally differentiated cardiomyocytes both showed SERS peaks specific to metabolic activity in the mitochondria and to protein translation (amide I, amide II, and amide III peaks). These peaks have been rarely identified in undifferentiated single ES cells. Spatiotemporal changes observed in the SERS spectra from terminally differentiated cardiomyocyte tissues revealed local and dynamic molecular interactions as well as transformations during ES cell differentiation.

Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications

Metal nanoparticles are being extensively used in various biomedical applications due to their small size to volume ratio and extensive thermal stability. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are an obvious choice due to their amenability of synthesis and functionalization, less toxicity and ease of detection. The present review focuses on various methods of functionalization of GNPs and their applications in biomedical research. Functionalization facilitates targeted delivery of these nanoparticles to various cell types, bioimaging, gene delivery, drug delivery and other therapeutic and diagnostic applications. This review is an amalgamation of recent advances in the field of functionalization of gold nanoparticles and their potential applications in the field of medicine and biology.

Paper surfaces functionalized by nanoparticles

Nanomaterials with unique electronic, optical and catalytic properties have recently been at the forefront of research due to their tremendous range of applications. Taking gold, silver and titania nanoparticles as examples, we have reviewed the current research works on paper functionalized by these nanoparticles. The functionalization of paper with only a very small concentration of nanoparticles is able to produce devices with excellent photocatalytic, antibacterial, anti-counterfeiting, Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) and Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) performances. This review presents a brief overview of the properties of gold, silver and titania nanoparticles which contribute to the major applications of nanoparticles-functionalized paper. Different preparation methods of the nanoparticles-functionalized paper are reviewed, focusing on their ability to control the morphology and structure of paper as well as the spatial location and adsorption state of nanoparticles which are critical in achieving their optimum applications. In addition, main applications of the nanoparticles-functionalized papers are highlighted and their critical challenges are discussed, followed by perspectives on the future direction in this research field. Whilst a few studies to date have characterized the distribution of nanoparticles on paper substrates, none have yet optimized paper as a nanoparticles' substrate. There remains a strong need to improve understanding on the optimum adsorption state of nanoparticles on paper and the heterogeneity effects of paper on the properties of these nanoparticles.

Aptamer-functionalized gold nanoparticles as probes in a dry-reagent strip biosensor for protein analysis

The highly specific molecular recognition properties of aptamers are combined with the unique optical properties of gold nanoparticles for the development of a dry-reagent strip biosensor that enables qualitative (visual)/quantitative detection of protein within minutes. A model system comprising thrombin as an analyte and a pair of aptamer probes is used to demonstrate the proof-of-concept on the conventional lateral flow test strip. The assay avoids the multiple incubation and washing steps performed in most current aptamer-based protein analyses. Although qualitative tests are realized by observing the color change of the test zone, quantitative data are obtained by recording the optical responses of the test zone with a portable "strip reader". The response of the biosensor is linear over the range of 5-100 nM of thrombin with a detection limit of 2.5 nM (S/N = 3). By comparing the analytical performances of the aptamer-based strip biosensor with the antibody-based strip sensor, we can demonstrate that aptamers are equivalent or superior to antibodies in terms of specificity and sensitivity, respectively. The sensor was used successfully for detection of thrombin in human plasma samples. It shows great promise for use of aptamer-functionalized gold nanoparticle probes in dry-reagent strip biosensors for point-of-care or in-field detection of proteins.